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254 Results

Survey Articles (Regional)

Regional
Baltic States and Finland
By Klaus Richter
This article presents a survey of the First World War in the region of today’s s…
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Regional
Poland
By Piotr Szlanta
This paper presents the process of building an independent Polish state during t…
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Regional
Russian Empire
By Joshua A. Sanborn
The Russian Empire entered the war in order to preserve its Great Power status, …
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Regional Thematic Articles

Regional Thematic
Bereavement and Mourning (Russian Empire)
By Svetlana Malysheva
This paper shows the transformation and subsequent preservation of Russian funer…
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Regional Thematic
Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Russian Empire)
By Aleksandr Borisovich Astashov
The goal of this article is to uncover the causes, dynamics, and transformation …
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Regional Thematic
Centenary (Belarus)
By Andrei Zamoiski
Belarus is in a region that was greatly affected by the First World War. For var…
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Regional Thematic
Centenary (Poland)
By Bartosz Dziewanowski-Stefańczyk
Contrary to the Great War, the regaining of Polish independence in 1918 has long…
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Regional Thematic
Centenary (Russia)
By Oxana Sergeevna Nagornaja
In Russia, the eve of 2014 and the celebration of the 100th anniversary of the o…
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Regional Thematic
Centenary (Ukraine)
By Yuliya Yurchuk
In Ukraine, commemorations of the centennial of the First World War were sporadi…
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Regional Thematic
Civil-Military Relations during World War I (Russian Empire)
By Olga Porshneva
This article examines the mechanisms, results, and characteristics of the nation…
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Regional Thematic
Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen (East Central Europe)
By Jussi Jalonen, Klaus Richter, Piotr Szlanta
In the countries of East Central Europe, the commemoration of soldiers who fell …
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Regional Thematic
Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen (Russian Empire)
By Aaron Cohen
The fundamental factor in the existence of a Russian cult of the war dead was th…
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Regional Thematic
Film/Cinema (East Central Europe)
By Karina Pryt
Until 1914, cinema in the Polish lands was shaped by borders between the partiti…
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Regional Thematic
Film/Cinema (Russian Empire)
By Alexandre Sumpf
An early actor in the cinema industry, Russia held a special position due to the…
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Regional Thematic
Film/Cinema (Russian Empire)
By Alexandre Sumpf
An early actor in the cinema industry, Russia held a special position due to the…
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Regional Thematic
Food and Nutrition (East Central Europe)
By Andrea Griffante
The German occupation of the north-western territories of the tsarist empire was…
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Regional Thematic
Food and Nutrition (Russian Empire)
By Iaroslav Golubinov
Food and nutrition became a crucial problem in wartime Russia. This problem may …
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Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties; Political Movements and Protostate Formation (East Central Europe)
By Klaus Richter, Piotr Szlanta
Political movements in Poland and the Baltics were heavily influenced by the Ger…
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Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Russian Empire)
By Fedor Aleksandrovich Gaida
At the beginning of World War I, Russian political parties found themselves in d…
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Regional Thematic
Historiography 1918-Today (East Central Europe)
By Klaus Richter, Piotr Szlanta
East Central European historians of the First World War have focused and continu…
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Regional Thematic
International Responses to the Russian Civil War (Russian Empire)
By Evan Mawdsley
The Russian Civil War of 1917-20 was closely related to the World War in terms o…
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Regional Thematic
Labour Movements and Strikes (East Central Europe)
By Paweł Brudek
During the First World War, revolutionary changes occurred in the labour movemen…
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Regional Thematic
Labour Movements, Trade Unions and Strikes (Russian Empire)
By Gleb J. Albert
This article outlines the development of the labour movement in Russia from the …
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Regional Thematic
Labour (Russian Empire)
By Michael S. Melancon
This essay surveys the issue of Russian labor during the First World War. It sum…
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Regional Thematic
Literature (Russian Empire)
By Nikolaus Katzer
This article outlines the corpus and characteristics of Russian literature durin…
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Regional Thematic
Occupation during and after the War (Austria-Hungary)
By Wolfram Dornik
While on the Western Front there were only limited territorial movements, the Ea…
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Regional Thematic
Occupation during and after the War (East Central Europe)
By Stephan Lehnstaedt
This article examines the politics of the German (Generalgouvernement Warschau) …
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Regional Thematic
Occupation during and after the War (Russian Empire)
By Wolfram Dornik
Occupation played a crucial role in Eastern Europe between 1914 and 1921: the hi…
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Regional Thematic
Organization of War Economies (Russian Empire)
By Peter Gatrell
The multiple demands of protracted warfare subjected the entire economic system …
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Regional Thematic
Polish War Myths (East Central Europe)
By Paweł Brudek
During the First World War, Józef Piłsudski and his followers invented the legen…
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Regional Thematic
Post-war Agrarian Economic Policies (East Central Europe)
By Klaus Richter
Agrarianism became a major political force in the independent states that emerge…
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Regional Thematic
Post-war Economies (East Central Europe)
By Wojciech Morawski
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland – all countries founded after Wo…
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Regional Thematic
Post-war Economies (Russian Empire)
By Anthony Heywood
In the context of the Russian economy’s spectacular collapse under the strain of…
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Regional Thematic
Post-war Military Action and Violence (East Central Europe)
By Jochen Böhler
The armistices of 1918 officially ended the First World War in Europe, but viole…
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Regional Thematic
Post-war Societies (East Central Europe)
By Maciej Górny
Although in late 1918 countries of East Central Europe had different forms of go…
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Regional Thematic
Post-war Societies (Russian Empire)
By Dietrich Beyrau
In contrast with the war in the West and its aftermath, the First World War in E…
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Regional Thematic
Press/Journalism (East Central Europe)
By Paweł Brudek
The situation of the press in East Central Europe worsened after the outbreak of…
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Regional Thematic
Press/Journalism (Russian Empire)
By Irina Zhdanova
Tsarist censorship strictly limited the information about military operations th…
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Regional Thematic
Pre-war Military Planning (Russian Empire)
By Evgenii Iur’evich Sergeev
This article is devoted to the main stages and areas of military planning in Rus…
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Regional Thematic
Prisoners of War (East Central Europe)
By Piotr Szlanta, Klaus Richter
During the war, hundreds of thousands of East Central Europeans mobilised to the…
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Regional Thematic
Prisoners of War (Russian Empire)
By Reinhard Nachtigal, Lena Radauer
This article explores the particularities of the situation of prisoners of war (…
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Regional Thematic
Propaganda at Home and Abroad (East Central Europe)
By Paweł Brudek
This article discusses the content and impact of various propaganda strategies w…
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Regional Thematic
Propaganda at Home (Russian Empire)
By Alexander Medyakov
This article studies the main institutions, forms, content, means, and degree of…
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Regional Thematic
Revolutions (East Central Europe)
By Paweł Brudek
This article discusses the influence the Russian Revolution had on countries in …
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Regional Thematic
Revolutions (Russian Empire)
By Christopher Read
The Russian Revolution was one of the most influential events to emerge from the…
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Regional Thematic
Science and Technology (Russian Empire)
By Scott W. Palmer
Although Russia made considerable progress in the decades preceding 1914, the on…
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Regional Thematic
Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Russian Empire)
By Michael S. Melancon
This essay analyzes social conflict in the Russian Empire during the Great War. …
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Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (East Central Europe)
By Jens Boysen
Already in autumn 1914, East Central Europe became a main theatre of operational…
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Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Russian Empire)
By David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye
Russia reluctantly entered the Great War to preserve its status as a great power…
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Regional Thematic
Warfare 1914-1918 (East Central Europe)
By Piotr Szlanta, Klaus Richter
Unlike the war on the Western Front, warfare in East Central Europe during the F…
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Regional Thematic
Warfare 1914-1918 (Russian Empire)
By John W. Steinberg
In late summer 1914 the Russian, German and Austrian armies engaged in intense b…
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Regional Thematic
War Finance (Russian Empire)
By Steven G. Marks
World War I was financially ruinous for the Russian government. Its decision to …
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Regional Thematic
War Losses (Russian Empire)
By Alexandre Sumpf
With about 5.5 million out of 16 million soldiers killed and wounded, the Russia…
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Regional Thematic
Women's Mobilization for War (Russian Empire)
By Laurie Stoff
As a total war, the First World War precipitated the involvement of thousands of…
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Encyclopedic Entries

Entry
Alekseyev, Mikhail Vasilʹevich
By Sofya Anisimova
Mikhail Alekseyev was a Russian general who was the chief of staff of the genera…
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Entry
Alexandra, Empress, consort of Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia
By Fedor Aleksandrovich Gaida
Born Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, Aleksandra Fedorovna married the future Russia…
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Entry
Antisemitism and Pogroms in the Military (Russian Empire)
By Semion Goldin
During World War I, the Russian military command was overtly anti-Semitic. Russi…
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Entry
Army of Islam
By Yalçın Murgul
The Army of Islam, which was created by the order of Enver Pasha dated 5 April 1…
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Entry
Azerbaijan
By Altay Goyushov
The Republic of Azerbaijan is a majority Turkic and secular Muslim nation in the…
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Entry
Baku, Battle of
By Yalçın Murgul
The Battle of Baku was the conclusive battle that ended the war between the anti…
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Entry
Baltenregiment
By Jarosław Centek
During the Estonian War of Independence, the Baltic Germans - despite their rela…
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Entry
Baltische Landeswehr
By Jarosław Centek
When Latvia felt endangered by the Bolsheviks they called for German help, since…
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Entry
Barbed Wire
By Alan Krell
Invented in France in 1860, barbed wire was further developed in the United Stat…
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Entry
Belarus
By Andrei Zamoiski
The Great War was a severe trial for Belarus and its population. It ruined the l…
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Entry
Bloch, Jan Gotlib
By Agnieszka Janiak-Jasińska
Jan Bloch was an entrepreneur, social activist and pacifist. At the end of his l…
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Entry
Brändström, Elsa
By Lena Radauer
Elsa Brändström was the only neutral representative to work amongst prisoners of…
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Entry
Brusilov, Alekseĭ Alekseevich
By Evgenii Vladimirovich Volkov
Aleksei Alekseevich Brusilov was a Russian general in the First World War, succe…
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Entry
Cēsis, Battle of
By Ēriks Jēkabsons
The Battle of Cēsis took place on 6-23 June 1919, near Cēsis, Latvia, during Lat…
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Entry
Chinese Workers in Russia
By Olga Alexeeva
During the war, the Tsarist government imported large groups of Chinese to the R…
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Entry
Circassian Nationalism
By Pınar Üre
Circassian nationalism refers to national movements among Adyghe people, a North…
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Entry
Cossacks
By Siobhan Peeling
Cossacks were warrior subjects who provided the tsars with mounted troops in ret…
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Entry
Czechoslovak Legions (Russian Empire)
By Evgenii Vladimirovich Volkov
The Czechoslovak Legion was a military formation of Czechs, Slovaks, exiles, and…
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Entry
Daszyński, Ignacy
By Andrzej Chojnowski
Ignacy Daszyński was one of the foremost figures on the Polish political scene i…
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Entry
Decree on Peace
By Siobhan Peeling
Following the Bolshevik seizure of power in October 1917, Lenin issued his Decre…
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Entry
Denikin, Anton Ivanovich
By Evgenii Vladimirovich Volkov
Anton Ivanovich Denikin was a Russian general, politician and writer. He fought …
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Entry
Dmowski, Roman
By Michał Leśniewski
Roman Stanisław Dmowski was a Polish politician and most importantly the co-foun…
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Entry
Dual Power
By Siobhan Peeling
In February 1917 two centres of power emerged to replace the tsarist government:…
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Entry
Duma
By Siobhan Peeling
The Tsar reluctantly granted an elected legislative assembly, the State Duma, du…
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Entry
Emigration (Russian Empire)
By Siobhan Peeling
The First World War, the Russian revolutions of February and October 1917, and t…
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Entry
Empire
By Erez Manela
World War I was not simply a conflict among European states but a global war of …
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Entry
Expanding Bullets
By Paul Cornish
During the First World War both sides accused each other of employing illegal sm…
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Entry
Fear
By Jan Plamper
Of the two world wars, the First World War was special in that fear figured prom…
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Entry
Finnish Civil War 1918
By Tuomas Tepora
The Finnish Civil War was fought between the socialist Reds and the non-socialis…
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Entry
Forts
By Miguel A. Lopez
European militaries considered fortifications before the First World War as vita…
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Entry
Gabrys, Juozas
By Česlovas Laurinavičius
Juozas Gabrys was one of the major advocates of Lithuanian political aspirations…
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Entry
General Headquarters (Russian Empire)
By Sofya Anisimova
Stavka Verkhovnogo Glavnokomanduyushchego was the centre of the field command o…
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Entry
Georgia
By Stephen F. Jones
World War One was a catalyst for Georgian independence, which was declared on 26…
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Entry
Grigorovich, Ivan Konstantinovich
By Siobhan Peeling
Grigorovich was Navy Minister between 1911 and 1917. He sought cooperation with …
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Entry
Gurko, Vasiliĭ Iosifovich
By Sofya Anisimova
General Vassillii Iosifovich Gurko was a Russian military commander during the F…
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Entry
Haller, Józef
By Jan Snopko
General Józef Haller was one of the best known Polish military commanders of the…
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Entry
Independence Wars (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia)
By Klaus Richter
The so-called “Wars of Independence” in the Baltics were part of a larger confli…
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Entry
Jabotinsky, Vladimir
By Arie M. Dubnov, Brian Horowitz
Russian-Jewish author, playwright, journalist, orator, and political activist; c…
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Entry
Jäger Movement
By Jussi Jalonen
The Finnish Jäger movement recruited approximately 2,000 men to the German Armed…
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Entry
July Crisis 1917 (Russian Empire)
By Siobhan Peeling
In July 1917, economic chaos and unpopular preparations for military action prov…
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Entry
Kerenskii, Aleksandr Fedorovich
By Siobhan Peeling
Aleksandr Kerenskii was Minister of War in Russia’s Provisional Government from …
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Entry
Kolchak, Aleksandr Vasil'evich
By Evgenii Vladimirovich Volkov
Aleksandr Vasil'evich Kolchak was a Russian admiral and political figure. He par…
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Entry
Kornilov, Lavr Georgievich
By Siobhan Peeling
Kornilov rose rapidly in the Russian army during the First World War, becoming C…
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Entry
Kostiuchnówka, Battle of
By Paweł Brudek
The Battle of Kostiuchnówka occurred during the Brusilov Offensive in the Volhyn…
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Entry
La Courtine, Mutiny of
By Jamie H. Cockfield
This article details the mutiny of two Russian brigades sent to France in World …
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Entry
Laidoner, Johan
By Ago Pajur
Johan Laidoner, Estonian general and statesman, started his career in the Russia…
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Entry
Latvian Riflemen
By Ēriks Jēkabsons
The Latvian Riflemen were Latvian territorial units comprised of nine battalions…
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Entry
Lemberg
By Claudia Reichl-Ham
In World War I Lemberg (German: Lemberg, Ukrainian: Lviv, Polish: Lwów) played a…
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Entry
Lenin, Vladimir Il’ich
By Benno Ennker
Vladimir Il’ich Lenin was the founder and leader of the Bolshevik Party and of t…
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Entry
Machine Gun
By Paul Cornish
Between 1914 and 1918, the machine gun played an ever-increasing role on the bat…
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Entry
Makhno, Nestor Ivanovich
By Christopher Gilley
Nestor Makhno was a commander of peasant insurgents who fought the Bolsheviks, W…
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Entry
Mannerheim, Carl Gustaf Emil
By Jussi Jalonen
A Finnish aristocrat, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim served as cavalry commander in…
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Entry
Mili︠u︡kov, Pavel Nikolaevich
By Fedor Aleksandrovich Gaida
One of the founders and leaders of the Constitutional Democratic Party, Pavel Ni…
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Entry
Muslim Soldiers in the Russian Army
By Franziska Davies
During the First World War, at least half a million Muslim soldiers fought in th…
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Entry
Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia
By Siobhan Peeling
Nicholas II ruled Russia from 1894 and was commander of the army from September …
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Entry
Nikolaĭ Nikolaevich, Grand Duke of Russia
By Siobhan Peeling
Nikolai Nikolaevich, a senior Russian officer and close relative of Tsar Nichola…
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Entry
Offensive, Gorlice-Tarnow
By Richard Lein
The Gorlice-Tarnów Offensive of May/June 1915 was a major military success for A…
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Entry
Paderewski, Ignacy Jan
By Andrzej Chojnowski
Ignacy Jan Paderewski was a virtuoso pianist. He made use of his popularity in t…
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Entry
Päts, Konstantin
By Ago Pajur
Konstantin Päts, a leading Estonian politician, was a key figure in the establis…
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Entry
Peasant Uprisings/Tambovshchina
By Christopher Gilley
During the Russian Civil War, peasant uprisings swept the former Russian Empire.…
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Entry
Piłsudski, Józef
By Michał Leśniewski
Józef Klemens Piłsudski was a Polish statesman, socialist politician, freedom fi…
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Entry
Polish Army in France
By Jarosław Centek
The Bayonne Company was the first Polish unit in France, formed in 1914 as a uni…
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Entry
Polish-German Border Conflict
By Jens Boysen
In the 19th century, the German-Polish borderlands became the object of national…
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Entry
Polish Legionaries Union
By Paweł Brudek
The Związek Legionistów Polskich (Polish Legionaries Union), or ZLP, was an asso…
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Entry
Polish Legions
By Jarosław Centek
At the outbreak of the Great War, two Polish Legions were formed within the Aust…
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Entry
Polish-Lithuanian Border Conflict
By Česlovas Laurinavičius
The Polish-Lithuanian border conflict (1914-1924) was a consequence of the proce…
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Entry
Polish National Units in Russia
By Paweł Brudek
The Polish Army was born out of the chaos of revolutionary Russia. The Russian a…
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Entry
Polish Paramilitary Organisations before 1914
By Mateusz Drozdowski
Polish paramilitary organizations were active in Galicia from 1910 to 1914 with …
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Entry
Polish-Soviet War 1920-1921
By Jarosław Centek
The hostilities between Bolshevik Russia and Poland started as early as 1919. In…
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Entry
Polish-Ukrainian Conflict over Eastern Galicia
By Oksana Dudko
The Polish-Ukrainian conflict over Eastern Galicia in 1918-19 refers to an armed…
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Entry
Prostitution
By Journey Steward
Prostitution was considered among the most important societal problems facing ci…
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Entry
Provisional Government
By Siobhan Peeling
When the tsarist government collapsed in February 1917, liberal politicians from…
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Entry
Railways (Russian Empire)
By Roland Cvetkovski
Vast land area, sparse population density, inconsistent tsarist policy, and unde…
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Entry
Rape
By Antoine Rivière
Although rape was not usually systematic, it occurred frequently on all fronts d…
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Entry
Rasputin, Grigoriĭ Efimovich
By Siobhan Peeling
Rasputin was a peasant turned pilgrim who became a close associate of the Russia…
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Entry
Reconnaissance and Observation
By Charles Dusch
Reconnaissance was aviation’s most important mission in the Great War. When war …
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Entry
Red Army
By Christopher Gilley
The Red Army was a paradoxical force created by a party deeply suspicious of reg…
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Entry
Refugees (Russian Empire)
By Siobhan Peeling
German and Austrian advances in 1914 and 1915, together with policies of the Rus…
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Entry
Revolution of 1905 (Russian Empire)
By Siobhan Peeling
Social and political unrest swept the Russian Empire in 1905, forcing the autocr…
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Entry
Riga, Treaty of
By Jerzy Borzęcki
The Treaty of Riga was signed by Poland and the Soviet state on 18 March 1921 an…
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Entry
Russian Expeditionary Force
By Sofya Anisimova, Gwendal Piégais
The Russian Expeditionary Force in France and in Macedonia (“Brigades russes en …
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Entry
Russo-Japanese War
By Siobhan Peeling
The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, caused by Russian and Japanese expansionism…
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Entry
Sazonov, Sergeĭ Dmitrievich
By Siobhan Peeling
Sergei Sazonov became Russian Foreign Minister in autumn 1910. In July 1914 he a…
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Entry
Shells Crisis of 1915
By Hew Strachan
In 1914, quick-firing field artillery could fire more shells than domestic indus…
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Entry
Shti︠u︡rmer, Boris Vladimirovich
By Siobhan Peeling
Boris Shtiurmer was Prime Minister from January to November 1916, also serving a…
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Entry
Siberian Intervention 1918-1922
By Paul Dunscomb
Woodrow Wilson proposed a joint intervention with Japan to “rescue” the Czech le…
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Entry
Sich Riflemen
By Oksana Dudko
The Ukrainian Sich Riflemen (Ukrains’ki Sičovi stril’tsi, USS) was a Ukrainian b…
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Entry
Smetona, Antanas
By Artūras Svarauskas
During the First World War, political writer and editor of Lithuanian magazines,…
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Entry
Smoking and Cigarette Consumption
By Michael Reeve
During the First World War, governments, civilians and soldiers alike prized smo…
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Entry
Spy Fever 1914
By Sebastian Bischoff
Spy Fever describes an anxiety or paranoia that enemy spies might be active with…
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Entry
Stalin, Joseph
By Erik van Ree
Joseph Stalin lived in Siberian exile from 1913 until the revolution of March 19…
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Entry
Stereotypes
By Vanessa Ther
This article summarises the main wartime stereotypes that defined war propaganda…
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Entry
Stravinsky, Igor
By Hartmut Fladt
Having gained success throughout Europe with his compositions for the Ballets Ru…
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Entry
Tampere, Battle of
By Jussi Jalonen
Fought between the Finnish Red and White forces from 15 March to 6 April 1918, t…
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Entry
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw
By Keya Thakur-Smolarek
The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Warsaw was originally built to honor the fall…
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Entry
Trialism
By Mateusz Drozdowski
Before and at the beginning of World War I, various proposals concerning the cre…
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Entry
Trotsky, Leon
By Ian D. Thatcher
Leon Trotsky's communist leadership was partially responsible for bringing about…
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Entry
Turkestan
By Cloé Drieu
The province of Turkestan - modern-day Central Asia -, a Russian military colony…
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Entry
Ukraine
By Liubov Zhvanko
At the beginning of the 20th century Ukrainian lands were part of the Austro-Hun…
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Entry
Ulmanis, Kārlis
By Ineta Lipša
Kārlis Ulmanis was the first prime minister of the Republic of Latvia. His four …
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Entry
Union des Nationalités
By Artūras Svarauskas
The Union des Nationalités, alternatively called the Office Central des National…
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Entry
Union of Zemstvos and Towns
By Siobhan Peeling
The Unions of Zemstvos and of Towns mobilised local self-government bodies and p…
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Entry
Vācietis, Jukums
By Ineta Lipša
Jukums Vācietis commanded the 5thZemgale Latvian Rifle Battalion. After the Octo…
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Entry
Voldemaras, Augustinas
By Artūras Svarauskas
During the First World War, as professor at the University of Perm (Russia), Aug…
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Entry
Volunteer Army
By Evgenii Vladimirovich Volkov
The Volunteer Army was the operational formation of anti-Bolshevik forces in Sou…
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Entry
War Bonds
By Steffen Bruendel
The governments of all belligerent countries issued special loans to finance the…
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Entry
War Communism
By Siobhan Peeling
War Communism refers to policies, particularly economic, pursued by the Bolshevi…
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Entry
War Industry Committees
By Siobhan Peeling
War Industry Committees were an attempt by Russian industrialists to mobilise th…
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Entry
Wireless Telegraphy
By Heidi J.S. Tworek
Wireless telegraphy became an integral part of warfare on the ground, in the air…
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Entry
Wrangel, Petr Nikolaevich, Baron
By Evgenii Vladimirovich Volkov
Petr Nikolaevich Wrangel was a Russian general and political leader. He particip…
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Entry
Yudenich, Nikolaĭ Nikolayevich
By Tigran Martirosyan
Nikolaĭ Yudenich was one of the most successful Russian commanders in World War …
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See Also

Thematic
Air Warfare
By Ross Mahoney, James Pugh
This article considers the use and evolution of air power during the First World…
Read more
Thematic
Alliance System 1914
By Günther Kronenbitter
Alliances were an important feature of the international system on the eve of Wo…
Read more
Thematic
Antisemitism
By Werner Bergmann, Ulrich Wyrwa
The First World War and its direct repercussions in the postwar period (revoluti…
Read more
Thematic
Arms Race prior to 1914, Armament Policy
By Eric Brose
New weapons produced during the Industrial Revolution in the late 1800s heighten…
Read more
Thematic
Atrocities
By Alan Kramer
The term "atrocity" describes an act of violence condemned by contemporaries as …
Read more
Thematic
Bereavement and Mourning
By Manfred Hettling, Tino Schölz
In the modern era, new forms of mourning and meaning-making for fallen soldiers …
Read more
Thematic
Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War
By André Loez
Soldiers’ attitudes towards the Great War are a controversial issue, as they pro…
Read more
Thematic
Caricatures
By Eberhard Demm
This article presents cartoonists as patriotic propagandists mobilizing their pe…
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Thematic
Censorship
By Eberhard Demm
Censorship was an indispensable war weapon: its task was to keep the people in a…
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Thematic
Centenary (Historiography)
By Jost Dülffer
Innovative historical scholarship played an important role in the shaping of mem…
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Thematic
Centenary (Internet)
By Lorna M. Hughes, Ian G. Anderson
The centenary events surrounding the First World War have produced a significant…
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Thematic
Centenary (Museums)
By Andrea Brait
This article discusses how European museums – in particular, national war museum…
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Thematic
Centenary (Visual Arts)
By Paul Gough
The commemorative period between 2014 and 2018 was marked globally by numerous e…
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Thematic
Civilian and Military Power
By Lawrence Sondhaus
By 1914 the leading states had succumbed to varying degrees of militarism, subor…
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Thematic
Civilian Morale
By Matteo Ermacora
This article deals with civilian morale during the First World War. Between 1915…
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Thematic
Colonial Empires after the War/Decolonization
By James E. Kitchen
The First World War saw the colonial empires of France and Britain mobilised to …
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Thematic
Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen
By Stéphane Tison
The First World War ushered in an unprecedented wave of commemorations. Mass dea…
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Thematic
Controversy: The Media's Responsibility for Crises and Conflicts in the Age of Imperialism
By Peter Geiss
The article discusses the role of the media in the complex international process…
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Thematic
Demobilization
By Gearóid Barry
The end of fighting in 1918 raised hopes for swift and equitable military demobi…
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Thematic
Drugs
By Łukasz Kamieński
Throughout history, intoxicants were an important part of the war experience. Th…
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Thematic
Eastern Front
By Timothy C. Dowling
Until recently, the eastern theater of the First World War was what Winston Chur…
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Thematic
Economic Planning before 1914
By Martin Horn
This article surveys the financial and economic planning for war before 1914 in …
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Thematic
Espionage
By Emmanuel Debruyne
During the entire war, warring powers used the “secret war” to try to break the …
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Thematic
Film/Cinema
By Roger Smither
The First World War played a significant role in the evolution of film both as a…
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Thematic
Forced Labour
By Jens Thiel, Christian Westerhoff
This article examines the conditions, forms and consequences of forced labor and…
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Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties
By Torsten Oppelland
One sees a wide range of political regimes from a democratic republic with unive…
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Thematic
Graphic Arts and Advertising as War Propaganda
By James Aulich
This article discusses the close relationships between national governments, adv…
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Thematic
Health, Disease, Mortality; Demographic Effects
By Doina Anca Cretu
The rapid spread of epidemics ravaged military personnel and civilians in and ou…
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Thematic
Historiography 1918-Today
By Jay Winter
There have been four generations of historical writing about the 1914-1918 war. …
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Thematic
Influenza Pandemic
By Howard Phillips
By examining the origins, pathways, demographic impact and consequences for the …
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Thematic
International Labour Organization
By Anita Ziegerhofer
The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919, establishing both the Leagu…
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Thematic
International Law and the Laws of War
By Jean H. Quataert
The article examines international efforts to curb states’ war-making prerogativ…
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Thematic
July Crisis 1914
By Annika Mombauer
The international crisis that began with the assassination of Archduke Franz Fer…
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Thematic
Labor
By Steven E. Rowe
Across the major belligerent powers, industrial production and the mobilization …
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Thematic
Labour Movements, Trade Unions and Strikes
By James Thompson
This article compares the history of labour movements during the war across a ra…
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Thematic
League of Nations
By Anita Ziegerhofer
The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919, the same day on which the L…
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Thematic
Literature
By David Budgen
This article seeks to present an overview of First World War literature across m…
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Thematic
Memory of the War: Popular Memory 1918-1945, 1945 to the Present
By Susanne Brandt
What role do representations of the First World War play in media that reach a w…
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Thematic
Migration and Mobility
By Marlou Schrover
There is an ongoing debate among historians whether the First World War did in f…
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Thematic
Militarism
By Christian K. Melby
Militarism is a vague term that has meant different things to different people a…
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Thematic
Military Justice
By Steven R. Welch
This essay offers a comparative survey of the practice of military justice among…
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Thematic
Military Lessons of the First World War
By Nikolas Gardner
This article examines the lessons derived by the military organizations that par…
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Thematic
Moral Norms and Values
By Gearóid Barry
Change and continuity marked belligerent societies’ norms and values during the …
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Thematic
Museums
By Jennifer Wellington, Aaron Cohen, Anne Hertzog, Susanne Brandt
This article describes the lives and afterlives of the First World War museums i…
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Thematic
Negotiating and Mediating Conduct of War
By Matthew Stibbe
Many issues surrounding the conduct of war in the years 1914-1918 were imperviou…
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Thematic
Occupation during the War
By Gustavo Corni
After an initial wave of interest in 1914 and the immediate post-war period, int…
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Thematic
On the Road to Modern War
By Dennis Showalter
The Great War was never considered the “war to end all wars” by the states and a…
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Thematic
Organization of War Economies
By Matthias Blum, Jari Eloranta, Pavel Osinsky
The First World War was a global conflict that caught most of the participants i…
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Thematic
Othering/Atrocity Propaganda
By Steffen Bruendel
In August 1914, a targeted and systematic manipulation of opinion by the media, …
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Thematic
Pacifism
By David S. Patterson
The idea of peace in total war may seem irrelevant, but pacifism, or peace activ…
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Thematic
Paramilitary Violence
By Annemarie Sammartino
While World War I featured the largest armies ever assembled, it was also fought…
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Thematic
Peace Initiatives
By Ross Kennedy
This paper examines major peace initiatives during World War I. It describes eff…
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Thematic
Photography
By Hilary Roberts
The First World War represents a watershed in the history of war photography. It…
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Thematic
Post-war Societies
By Richard Bessel
The First World War caused unprecedented disruption to societies across the glob…
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Thematic
Prisoners of War
By Heather Jones
The First World War marked the shift from a 19th century, relatively ad hoc mana…
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Thematic
Propaganda at Home and Abroad
By Eberhard Demm
This article summarizes and compares the principal arguments and strategies of p…
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Thematic
Property Rights and Economic Nationalism
By Daniela L. Caglioti
This article explores the policies adopted and implemented against enemy propert…
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Thematic
Raw Materials
By Pierre Chancerel
Raw materials were vital during the First World War. Due to the armaments produc…
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Thematic
Red Cross
By Cédric Cotter
National Red Cross societies played a very important role in the First World War…
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Thematic
Refugees
By Peter Gatrell
This article addresses the scale of wartime population displacement in continent…
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Thematic
Religious Mobilization and Popular Belief
By Patrick J. Houlihan
From the cradle to the grave, popular religion formed a necessary and vital, if …
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Thematic
Resettlement
By Peter Gatrell
The conduct of warfare in 1914-1918 included extensive population resettlement i…
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Thematic
Revolutions
By Chad R. Fulwider
This article surveys the various movements toward social, national, and politica…
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Thematic
Rural Society
By Matteo Ermacora
The paper describes the impact of war on peasantry and its mobilisation in the w…
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Thematic
Russian Civil War
By Alexandre Sumpf
The Russian civil war was not simply a conflict between Red communists and White…
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Thematic
Shifts and Tensions in Ethnic/National Groups
By Borislav Chernev
This article examines the changing dynamics of national tensions in the Habsburg…
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Thematic
Social Conflict
By Claire Morelon
This article deals with the nature of social conflict during the war. The length…
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Thematic
Social Costs of War
By Kimberly A. Redding
This article explores how the anticipation, reality, and memory of sacrifice inf…
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Thematic
State, Civil Society and Relief Organizations for War
By Branden Little
A vast array of initiatives designed to counteract the destructiveness of the Fi…
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Thematic
The Churches
By Patrick J. Houlihan
Reflecting current historiography, this article focuses primarily on Christian c…
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Thematic
The Everyday as Involved in War
By Tammy M. Proctor
This essay examines how the "everyday" functions in war, not only for those on t…
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Thematic
The Historiography of the Origins of the First World War
By William Mulligan
The debate about the origins of the war remains a vibrant area of historical res…
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Thematic
The Military at Home
By Odile Roynette
Regardless of whether it was based on volunteer enlistment or conscription, mass…
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Thematic
The Paris Peace Conference and its Consequences
By Alan Sharp
This article offers an overview of peacemaking after the First World War from th…
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Thematic
The Way to War
By Samuel R. Williamson, Jr.
Imperialism shaped almost every facet of international politics from 1898 to 191…
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Thematic
Urban Societies and Cities
By Andrew Lees
Cities — with their comparatively large and dense but also vulnerable population…
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Thematic
Venereal Diseases
By Journey Steward, Nancy M. Wingfield
This essay traces belligerent policies toward venereal disease (VD) on the fight…
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Thematic
Veterans' Associations
By Julia Eichenberg
Veterans’ associations formed an influential social movement during the interwar…
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Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions
By Georges-Henri Soutou
Despite what some believe, there is still a lot to say and learn about the First…
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Thematic
Warfare 1914-1918
By William Philpott
Static “trench warfare” belied a dynamic transformation in warfare between 1914 …
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Thematic
War Finance
By Nicholas Mulder
The Great War required war-making states to mobilize and sustain the financial r…
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Thematic
War Letters: Communication between Front and Home Front
By Martha Hanna
In nations where literacy was well-established by 1914, letter-writing was criti…
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Thematic
War Losses
By Antoine Prost
Military sources provide the primary statistics of war losses and casualties dur…
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Thematic
Wartime Emotions: Honour, Shame, and the Ecstasy of Sacrifice
By Ute Frevert
Through investigating the pivotal role of honour in private and public matters, …
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Thematic
Willingly to War. Public Response to the Outbreak of War
By Jean-Jacques Becker
It may surprise us to learn that some sectors of the European public were in fav…
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Thematic
Women’s Mobilization for War
By Susan R. Grayzel
This article explores women’s economic, social, and political responses to the F…
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Thematic
Women War Reporters
By Stephanie Seul
Female war reporters from belligerent and neutral countries were present in the …
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Thematic
Xenophobia
By Thomas Brodie
This article provides an overview of xenophobia during the First World War - nam…
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