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Survey Articles (Regional)

Regional Thematic Articles

Encyclopedic Entries

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Regional Thematic Articles

Encyclopedic Entries

  • Albertini, Luigi

    By Rosaria Leonardi

    Luigi Albertini was a journalist and editor-in-chief of one of the most important Italian newspapers, ''Corriere della Sera''. From the pages of his newspaper, he advocated for Italian intervention … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Arditi

    By Martina Salvante

    ''Arditi'' were elite assault troops in the Italian army. They also emerged on Italy’s post-war political scene thanks to newly formed associations. Even though many of them had ties to fascism, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Attrition Warfare

    By Nicholas Murray

    Attrition warfare is the term used to describe the sustained process of wearing down an opponent so as to force their physical collapse through continuous losses in personnel, equipment and supplies … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Baracca, Francesco

    By Irene Guerrini and Marco Pluviano

    Francesco Baracca was the most famous Italian aviator, and shot down thirty-four enemy airplanes. He began his career in 1910 as a cavalry officer and became an air-fighter in 1912. He fought in the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Battisti, Cesare

    By Mirko Saltori

    Cesare Battisti was the leader of the socialist party of the Italian Tirol (Trentino) and, from 1911, a member of the Austrian parliament. At the outbreak of war he went to Italy to engage in … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bishops and Chaplains (Italy)

    By Sante Lesti

    Italian bishops and chaplains played a central role in making sense of the war by presenting sacrifice for one’s country as an act of charity and brotherly love. In addition to the 2,624 Catholic … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Boselli, Paolo

    By Vanda Wilcox

    After a long parliamentary career, Paolo Boselli became Italy’s 22nd prime minister in June 1916 after the fall of Antonio Salandra’s government. Charged with forming a unity … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cadorna, Luigi

    By Anna Grillini

    Luigi Cadorna was a career military man, the son of a major general in the army of Piedmont. He quickly climbed the military hierarchy to become chief of staff of the Italian army from July 1914 … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Camouflage

    By Cécile Coutin

    A technique of concealment and protection, a means to deceive but not kill, camouflage was significantly developed during the First World War. The technique enabled many artists to put their talents … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Capello, Luigi

    By Andrea Argenio

    Luigi Capello was an Italian general who took part in the war on the Gorizia front. As commander-in-chief of the Second Army, many held him to be chiefly to blame for the defeat of Caporetto. Having … READ MORE

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  • Caporetto, Battle of

    By Anna Grillini

    The Battle of Caporetto, also known as the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo, remains the worst defeat suffered by the Italian army to date. It began at two o’clock in the morning on 24 October 1917 on … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Christmas Truce

    By Alexandre Lafon

    In December 1914, there were several truces between enemy soldiers along one part of the Western front. Widely publicized, they underscore how difficult it was for soldiers to adapt to the conditions … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Croce, Benedetto

    By Adviye Damla Ünlü

    Benedetto Croce is an important figure for both Italian intellectual life (through his philosophical and historical writings) and the political history of Italy (through his work as a politician). … READ MORE

    Entry

  • D'Annunzio, Gabriele

    By Vanda Wilcox

    One of Italy’s leading literary figures, Gabriele D’Annunzio agitated for Italian intervention in the war in 1915. After serving as a volunteer fighter pilot, he led a group of fellow … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Diaz, Armando, Duke of Victory

    By Alessandro Salvador

    Armando Diaz was an Italian officer and a general during World War I. In 1917, after the defeat of Caporetto, he replaced Luigi Cadorna as chief of general staff of the Italian army. He reformed the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Empire

    By Erez Manela

    World War I was not simply a conflict among European states but a global war of empires. The fighting took place not only in Europe, but also in Africa, Asia, and across the Middle East, and it … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Fear

    By Jan Plamper

    Of the two world wars, the First World War was special in that fear figured prominently in a number of domains, including military tactics, psychiatry, and first-person sources. Fear was to be … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Feminist Pacifism

    By Annika Wilmers

    A minority section of the women’s movements opposed World War I and organized the International Congress of Women at The Hague in April 1915. Its participants demanded women’s rights and more … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Flamethrower

    By Paul Cornish

    The use of portable flamethrowers in combat was a First World War innovation. The German army took the lead in developing this form of warfare and remained the foremost practitioner of it throughout … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Giardino, Gaetano Ettore

    By Andrea Argenio

    Gaetano Giardino was an Italian general best remembered for his role as commander of the Fourth Army, the army of the Grappa, and as minister of war during the parliamentary crisis of June 1917. In … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Giolitti, Giovanni

    By Spencer Di Scala

    Giovanni Giolitti favored the increased liberalization of Italy, which encouraged its estrangement from the Triple Alliance. He consistently refused to recognize that Italy’s partners’ aggressive … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Gorizia, Battle of

    By Francesco Frizzera

    The Battle of Gorizia, known as the Sixth Isonzo’s Battle, was fought by the Italian Third Army against the Austro-Hungarian Fifth Army between 6 and 16 August 1916. It resulted in the Italian … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Interventionism (Italy)

    By Stéfanie Prezioso

    Italy entered the First World War in May 1915, roughly ten months after it began. During those ten months, the battle of opinions for and against intervention raged on. Public meetings, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Isonzo, Battles of

    By Alessandro Salvador

    The battles of Isonzo represented Italy’s main offensive efforts against the Austro-Hungarian Empire during World War I. The eleven battles took place between 1915 and 1917 along the Isonzo River … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Italian Irredentism

    By Matthew Stibbe

    This article examines the history of Italian irredentism before 1915; and its place its role in Italy’s entry into the war in May 1915 and in Austro-Hungary’s military governance of the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Italo-Turkish War 1911-1912

    By Rachel Simon

    The Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912) took place mainly in Ottoman Libya following Italy’s invasion, not taking into consideration the fierce Ottoman and indigenous … READ MORE

    Entry

  • London, Treaty of (1915)

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    The Treaty of London was a secret agreement signed by Italy, Great Britain, France, and Russia on 26 April 1915, bringing Italy into the First World War on the Entente side. It therefore had a … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Machine Gun

    By Paul Cornish

    Between 1914 and 1918, the machine gun played an ever-increasing role on the battlefield. Today, even though artillery was responsible for the majority of deaths, the machine gun is the weapon most … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Masculinities

    By Sonja Levsen

    The First World War represents the apex of the ideal of the male warrior hero. Between 1914 and 1918, both the soldiers themselves and combatant societies relied upon gendered language to make sense … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Mediterranean Theater, Naval Operations

    By Paul G. Halpern

    The real naval war in the Mediterranean turned out to be a struggle against German and Austrian submarines and not a classic battle between major … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Militarized Workers (Italy)

    By Martina Salvante

    In 1915 the Italian government created an agency called ''Mobilitazione Industriale'' (Industrial Mobilisation) to manage economic activities and labour relations in wartime. The MI attempted to … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Military Volunteers (Italy)

    By Sante Lesti

    The history of the Italian military volunteers concerns not only the roughly 10,000 men who chose to fight without (or before) being drafted, but also the approximately 6,000 Italians who served in … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Monte Grappa, Battle of

    By Francesco Cutolo

    After the battle of Caporetto, the Austro-German army launched several attacks against Mount Grappa to break through the Italian line. The battle was fought in two phases: between 13 and 26 November, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Mussolini, Benito

    By Brian R. Sullivan

    Italian Socialist Benito Mussolini envisioned war as the prerequisite for revolution. He helped push Italy into World War I. After combat service and medical discharge in 1917, he demanded war until … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Naval Warfare (Italy)

    By Fabio De Ninno

    Italy’s war at sea reflected the more general trends of the naval warfare in the Great War: a stalemate that turned into a war of naval attrition. Only after harsh losses to national shipping and … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Nitti, Francesco Saverio

    By Pierluigi Pironti

    Francesco Nitti was minister of the Treasury in the Orlando Cabinet after the defeat of Caporetto in 1917 and prime minister of Italy in 1919. During his mandate he signed the treaty of … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Ojetti, Ugo

    By Selena Daly

    Ugo Ojetti was a journalist who, during the war, was tasked with the protection of monuments and artworks in the Italian-occupied territories. He was also instrumental in establishing and managing … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele

    By Spencer Di Scala

    A renowned jurist with lasting influence, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando served as justice and interior minister between 1916 and 1917, implementing liberal policies despite strong opposition. As prime … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Orphans (Italy)

    By Giuseppe Ferraro

    This article focuses on the efforts of the Italian government and certain institutions to care for the high numbers of war orphans in the country. In addition to a brief reconstruction of the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Piave, Battles of

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    The two battles of the River Piave were fought between 10 November and 25 December 1917, and 15-23 June 1918, respectively. The Austro-Hungarian army, supported by German units, tried to bring about … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Pope Benedict XV

    By John Pollard

    Much of the reign of Pope Benedict XV was dominated by the First World War. Pope Benedict deplored this war and thus, together with his Secretary of State, he tried to bring an end to it through … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Pre-war Socialist Pacifism

    By Elisa Marcobelli

    The Socialists’ opposition to war in France, Germany and Italy during the period of the Second International (1889-1914) was contradictory. They tried to combine internationalism, antiwar … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Rape

    By Antoine Rivière

    Although rape was not usually systematic, it occurred frequently on all fronts during the First World War, during both invasion and occupation periods. It was often used in propaganda to discredit … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Salandra, Antonio

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    Antonio Salandra was an important Italian politician in the early 20th century. When the Great War broke out, he was prime minister of Italy and had a decisive yet controversial role in … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Sonnino, Sidney

    By Paola Carlucci

    Sidney Sonnino was the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs during World War I. He negotiated the Treaty of London, defining the terms with which Italy would enter into the war alongside the Triple … READ MORE

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  • Stormtrooper

    By Ralf Raths

    Storm troopers were soldiers in specialized assault units, which emerged in the German army during the First World … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Supreme War Council

    By Elizabeth Greenhalgh

    The Supreme War Council was an Allied administrative organisation, created by the Entente governments in November 1917 to coordinate their military action. Its most significant achievement was to … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Rome

    By Martina Salvante

    At the end of the Great War, many countries determined that they would bury an anonymous corpse to symbolize all those who died on the battlefields. In Italy, the ceremony for the entombment of the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Trentino

    By Nicola Fontana and Mirko Saltori

    Trentino is an Italian-speaking region which was the southernmost part of the Tyrol. With Italy’s entry into the war, it found itself in the front area. After the war it was annexed to the Kingdom … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    Victor Emmanuel III played an important, if often overlooked part in Italy’s decision to intervene in World War I on the side of the Entente. During the war, he managed to solve two political … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Vittoria Mutilata

    By Brian R. Sullivan

    Gabriele D’Annunzio’s phrase “mutilated victory” infers that Italy’s wartime sacrifices went unrewarded, but excessive Italian demands and inept diplomacy in Paris provoked French and … READ MORE

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  • Vittorio Veneto, Battle of

    By Francesco Frizzera

    The Battle of Vittorio Veneto was fought between 24 October and 4 November 1918 by the Italian 4th, 8th, 10th and 12th Armies against the Austro-Hungarian … READ MORE

    Entry

  • War and Comics (Italy)

    By Roberto Bianchi

    Comics played a very important role in the total mobilization in Italy. Firstly in the cities and then in the trenches, they were a new propaganda tool and explanation of the war for children and … READ MORE

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  • War Poetry

    By Jane Potter

    This article examines the concept of war poetry and considers the range of poetic responses generated by the Great War from an international … READ MORE

    Entry

  • War Profiteers

    By François Bouloc

    As a long-lasting industrial war, the Great War led to the realization of considerable profits throughout industrialized countries. Both real and imagined, they structured many wartime facets, from … READ MORE

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  • War Widows

    By Peggy Bette

    One third of the 9.7 million soldiers killed or declared missing during the Great War left behind a widow. The mourning of these women was conditioned as much by the social conventions practiced … READ MORE

    Entry

See also

  • Air Warfare

    By Ross Mahoney and James Pugh

    This article considers the use and evolution of air power during the First World War. By focusing on the principal air power roles – control of the air, tactical, strategic, and naval and maritime … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Alliance System 1914

    By Günther Kronenbitter

    Alliances were an important feature of the international system on the eve of World War I. The formation of rival blocs of Great Powers has previously considered a major cause of the outbreak of war … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Antisemitism

    By Werner Bergmann and Ulrich Wyrwa

    The First World War and its direct repercussions in the postwar period (revolution, counterrevolution, the founding of republics, and the Paris peace treaties) mark a profound caesura not only in the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Art

    By Sue Malvern

    The nature of the First World War put an end to traditions for battle painting. Instead, war art by younger more progressive artists was the best received because it was judged the most authentic. … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War

    By André Loez

    Soldiers’ attitudes towards the Great War are a controversial issue, as they prove difficult to assess and raise complex methodological questions. They evolved during the course of the conflict, … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Caricatures

    By Eberhard Demm

    This article presents cartoonists as patriotic propagandists mobilizing their pens and brushes for the national cause during the war. It analyses their techniques for arousing emotions such as … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Censorship

    By Eberhard Demm

    Censorship was an indispensable war weapon: its task was to keep the people in an atmosphere of utter ignorance and unshaken confidence in the authorities, and to allow their boundless indoctrination … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Battlefield Tourism)

    By Romain Fathi

    The centenary of the First World War has been a catalyst for battlefield tourism. The creation of new museums, memorials, statues, commemorative trails and the like has strengthened the Great War’s … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Computer Games)

    By Chris Kempshall

    The First World War centenary saw an emergence of new portrayals of the conflict in computer games. These new games sought either to tell new stories of war and conflict during the time period or to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Internet)

    By Lorna M. Hughes and Ian G. Anderson

    The centenary events surrounding the First World War have produced a significant amount of digital content in various forms, and thus has set a precedent for how large scale post-war memorisation can … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Visual Arts)

    By Paul Gough

    The commemorative period between 2014 and 2018 was marked globally by numerous exhibitions of original artworks that had been commissioned and created during and immediately after World War 1. Most … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Children and Youth

    By Andrew Donson

    Mass conscription recast relationships in families, raised minors’ potential as wage earners, and decreased supervision over them. War ravaged the health of young people in Central Europe while … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Civilian and Military Power

    By Lawrence Sondhaus

    By 1914 the leading states had succumbed to varying degrees of militarism, subordinating other interests to those of the armed forces, yet all were governed by regimes in which the ultimate authority … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Civilian Morale

    By Matteo Ermacora

    This article deals with civilian morale during the First World War. Between 1915 and 1918, governments “discovered” the importance of civilian morale and developed vast systems of surveillance to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen

    By Stéphane Tison

    The First World War ushered in an unprecedented wave of commemorations. Mass death elicited a construction spree in memorial objects and sites across all countries and territories involved in the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Controversy: Total War

    By Daniel Marc Segesser

    Total war is a controversial term used in the past by politicians, publicists and military officers as well as by computer specialists and academics in the present. Since its conception by French … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Demobilization

    By Gearóid Barry

    The end of fighting in 1918 raised hopes for swift and equitable military demobilization amongst soldiers and civilians. The timing and nature of demobilization varied greatly, though, due to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Espionage

    By Emmanuel Debruyne

    During the entire war, warring powers used the “secret war” to try to break the balance of the battlefield. Generally created in the previous few decades, intelligence and security services saw … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Fascism and the Radical Right

    By Gustavo Corni

    The First World War was not only the precondition of the rise of fascist movements in a general way: more definitely, the fascists presented themselves as the heirs of the trench combatants. German … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Film/Cinema

    By Roger Smither

    The First World War played a significant role in the evolution of film both as a medium for reporting war and as a tool for the propagandist manipulation of public opinion to support the war effort. … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Food and Nutrition

    By Emmanuelle Cronier

    During the First World War, food became a major issue for military and civilian matters. This contribution aims to discuss the food situation in the belligerent countries in connection with global … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Governments, Parliaments and Parties

    By Torsten Oppelland

    One sees a wide range of political regimes from a democratic republic with universal male suffrage (France) to parliamentary, constitutional, or even oligarchical monarchies in the countries that … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Health, Disease, Mortality; Demographic Effects

    By Doina Anca Cretu

    The rapid spread of epidemics ravaged military personnel and civilians in and outside Europe’s warzones during the Great War. Further, the great influenza pandemic of 1918-1919 became a global … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Imperialism

    By Boris Barth

    This article focuses on the extent to which imperialism contributed to the outbreak of the First World War. The first part describes the emergence of specific imperialist cultures and attitudes in … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • International Labour Organization

    By Anita Ziegerhofer

    The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919, establishing both the League of Nations and another international organization: the International Labour Organization (ILO). The ILO was founded … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • International Law and the Laws of War

    By Jean H. Quataert

    The article examines international efforts to curb states’ war-making prerogatives in the second half of the “long” 19th century. It captures new humanitarian sentiments circulating … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Italian Front

    By Vanda Wilcox

    In May 1915, Italy attacked Austria-Hungary along the Isonzo River and in the Trentino, hoping to conquer territory which it believed to be rightfully Italian. An immobile, entrenched war of … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Labor

    By Steven E. Rowe

    Across the major belligerent powers, industrial production and the mobilization and organization of industrial labor became central to the conduct of the First World War. States and private … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Labour Movements, Trade Unions and Strikes

    By James Thompson

    This article compares the history of labour movements during the war across a range of European countries. It charts the impact of the economic realities of the war upon labour and analyses the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • League of Nations

    By Anita Ziegerhofer

    READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Militarism

    By Christian K. Melby

    Militarism is a vague term that has meant different things to different people at different times. It can be analysed as a popular phenomenon, or as a feature more at home in the halls of power, or … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Military Justice

    By Steven R. Welch

    This essay offers a comparative survey of the practice of military justice among several of the key belligerent powers. Accused soldiers enjoyed little in the way of legal protection, and punishment … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Military Lessons of the First World War

    By Nikolas Gardner

    This article examines the lessons derived by the military organizations that participated in the First World War on land, at sea, and in the air. It demonstrates that while military and naval … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Moral Norms and Values

    By Gearóid Barry

    Change and continuity marked belligerent societies’ norms and values during the First World War. Normative institutions such as marriage and the family proved basically resilient but … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Nationalism

    By John Paul Newman

    This article offers an overview of the progress of nationalism and the national idea starting with its origins as a mass political programme during the French Revolution and tracing its passage up to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Naval Warfare

    By Eric W. Osborne

    All of the great belligerent states of World War I were naval powers and engaged in operations around the globe. While the course of the war did not unfold as predicted by naval officials, it did … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Negotiating and Mediating Conduct of War

    By Matthew Stibbe

    Many issues surrounding the conduct of war in the years 1914-1918 were impervious to international negotiation or mediation, due either to a complete lack of consensus or to an absence of trust and … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Occupation during the War

    By Gustavo Corni

    After an initial wave of interest in 1914 and the immediate post-war period, international historiography long neglected the wartime occupation of territories inhabited by large civilian populations. … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • On the Road to Modern War

    By Dennis Showalter

    The Great War was never considered the “war to end all wars” by the states and armed forces in conflict. The war’s legacies were processed in a wide variety of ways depending on forms of … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Peace Initiatives

    By Ross Kennedy

    This paper examines major peace initiatives during World War I. It describes efforts by the chief European belligerents to split apart enemy coalitions with separate peace settlements as well … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Post-war Welfare Policies

    By Pierluigi Pironti

    The Great War gave new impulses to the further development of public welfare systems which had emerged in previous decades. The desire for the social protection of the population and the restoration … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Prisoners of War

    By Heather Jones

    The First World War marked the shift from a 19th century, relatively ''ad hoc'' management of prisoners of war, to the 20th century’s sophisticated prisoner of war camp … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Propaganda at Home and Abroad

    By Eberhard Demm

    This article summarizes and compares the principal arguments and strategies of propaganda at the home front, the military front, as well as in neutral and enemy countries. These included the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Property Rights and Economic Nationalism

    By Daniela L. Caglioti

    This article explores the policies adopted and implemented against enemy property from the beginning of the Great War to the signing of the peace treaties in Europe. Breaking a long-standing … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Raw Materials

    By Pierre Chancerel

    Raw materials were vital during the First World War. Due to the armaments production, the belligerents’ needs increased significantly, while the available resources fell. Each country intended both … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Refugees

    By Peter Gatrell

    This article addresses the scale of wartime population displacement in continental Europe, the relief efforts made on behalf of refugees, their impact on host communities, and the cultural … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Religious Mobilization and Popular Belief

    By Patrick J. Houlihan

    From the cradle to the grave, popular religion formed a necessary and vital, if analytically messy, part of the human experience of the Great War. The war had the potential to atomize and alienate … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Resettlement

    By Peter Gatrell

    The conduct of warfare in 1914-1918 included extensive population resettlement in all theatres of war in Europe, both as a result of pre-emptive decisions by civilians to flee in order to evade the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Revolutions

    By Chad R. Fulwider

    This article surveys the various movements toward social, national, and political revolution that emerged during and in the wake of World War I. The Russian revolutions of 1917 serve as the first … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Rural Society

    By Matteo Ermacora

    The paper describes the impact of war on peasantry and its mobilisation in the war effort. While observers portrayed the countryside as rich and callous towards urban shortages or waging war, the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Schools and Universities

    By Andrew Donson

    The military service of teachers and the mobilization of schoolchildren for voluntary war work deeply disrupted schooling, especially in Central Europe. In continental Europe, war infused curricula … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Sea Transport and Supply

    By Michael B. Miller

    Allied capacity at sea to sustain global transport and supply determined their ability to prevail in the First World War. The deployment of convoys to triumph over submarine warfare was an important … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Social Conflict

    By Claire Morelon

    This article deals with the nature of social conflict during the war. The length of the conflict and growing food shortages on the home front strained relations between individuals and between social … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Social Costs of War

    By Kimberly A. Redding

    This article explores how the anticipation, reality, and memory of sacrifice informed experiences and legacies of World War I. Drawing on representative examples from multiple nations, I suggest that … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • State, Civil Society and Relief Organizations for War

    By Branden Little

    A vast array of initiatives designed to counteract the destructiveness of the First World War was developed by states and societies across the world. Protecting the bodies and minds of soldiers from … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Churches

    By Patrick J. Houlihan

    Reflecting current historiography, this article focuses primarily on Christian churches centered in the main European theater of the Great War, including more global interactions with the other … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Everyday as Involved in War

    By Tammy M. Proctor

    This essay examines how the "everyday" functions in war, not only for those on the home fronts, but for those in combat roles and for those living between the lines. Five important qualities, among … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Military Collapse of the Central Powers

    By Graydon A. Tunstall

    October 1918 witnessed the collapse of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies, both greatly affected by war-weariness and starvation. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy lost any remaining loyalty from its … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Paris Peace Conference and its Consequences

    By Alan Sharp

    This article offers an overview of peacemaking after the First World War from the armistices of 1918 until 1923. It considers the outcomes of the five Parisian treaties (Versailles, Saint-Germain and … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Way to War

    By Samuel R. Williamson, Jr.

    Imperialism shaped almost every facet of international politics from 1898 to 1914. Imperial concerns brought Britain into entente relationships with France and Russia. This Triple Entente often … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Warfare 1914-1918

    By William Philpott

    Static “trench warfare” belied a dynamic transformation in warfare between 1914 and 1918. Every army grappled with the same issues: how to end a strategic stalemate occasioned by their ability to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • War Finance

    By Nicholas Mulder

    The Great War required war-making states to mobilize and sustain the financial resources for a global war on an unprecedented scale. What made war finance during the conflict so special is that this … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Willingly to War. Public Response to the Outbreak of War

    By Jean-Jacques Becker

    It may surprise us to learn that some sectors of the European public were in favour of the war in 1914. The impact of modern weapons was not well understood and many people in the government, … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Women’s Mobilization for War

    By Susan R. Grayzel

    This article explores women’s economic, social, and political responses to the First World War. It addresses their mobilization including their engagement with the war effort as well as their … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Women War Reporters

    By Stephanie Seul

    Female war reporters from belligerent and neutral countries were present in the major war theatres in Europe and the Middle East throughout 1914 to 1918. While admission of journalists to the war … READ MORE

    Thematic

Regional Thematic Articles

Encyclopedic Entries

  • Albertini, Luigi

    By Rosaria Leonardi

    Luigi Albertini was a journalist and editor-in-chief of one of the most important Italian newspapers, ''Corriere della Sera''. From the pages of his newspaper, he advocated for Italian intervention … READ MORE

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  • Arditi

    By Martina Salvante

    ''Arditi'' were elite assault troops in the Italian army. They also emerged on Italy’s post-war political scene thanks to newly formed associations. Even though many of them had ties to fascism, … READ MORE

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  • Attrition Warfare

    By Nicholas Murray

    Attrition warfare is the term used to describe the sustained process of wearing down an opponent so as to force their physical collapse through continuous losses in personnel, equipment and supplies … READ MORE

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  • Baracca, Francesco

    By Irene Guerrini and Marco Pluviano

    Francesco Baracca was the most famous Italian aviator, and shot down thirty-four enemy airplanes. He began his career in 1910 as a cavalry officer and became an air-fighter in 1912. He fought in the … READ MORE

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  • Battisti, Cesare

    By Mirko Saltori

    Cesare Battisti was the leader of the socialist party of the Italian Tirol (Trentino) and, from 1911, a member of the Austrian parliament. At the outbreak of war he went to Italy to engage in … READ MORE

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  • Bishops and Chaplains (Italy)

    By Sante Lesti

    Italian bishops and chaplains played a central role in making sense of the war by presenting sacrifice for one’s country as an act of charity and brotherly love. In addition to the 2,624 Catholic … READ MORE

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  • Boselli, Paolo

    By Vanda Wilcox

    After a long parliamentary career, Paolo Boselli became Italy’s 22nd prime minister in June 1916 after the fall of Antonio Salandra’s government. Charged with forming a unity … READ MORE

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  • Cadorna, Luigi

    By Anna Grillini

    Luigi Cadorna was a career military man, the son of a major general in the army of Piedmont. He quickly climbed the military hierarchy to become chief of staff of the Italian army from July 1914 … READ MORE

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  • Camouflage

    By Cécile Coutin

    A technique of concealment and protection, a means to deceive but not kill, camouflage was significantly developed during the First World War. The technique enabled many artists to put their talents … READ MORE

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  • Capello, Luigi

    By Andrea Argenio

    Luigi Capello was an Italian general who took part in the war on the Gorizia front. As commander-in-chief of the Second Army, many held him to be chiefly to blame for the defeat of Caporetto. Having … READ MORE

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  • Caporetto, Battle of

    By Anna Grillini

    The Battle of Caporetto, also known as the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo, remains the worst defeat suffered by the Italian army to date. It began at two o’clock in the morning on 24 October 1917 on … READ MORE

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  • Christmas Truce

    By Alexandre Lafon

    In December 1914, there were several truces between enemy soldiers along one part of the Western front. Widely publicized, they underscore how difficult it was for soldiers to adapt to the conditions … READ MORE

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  • Croce, Benedetto

    By Adviye Damla Ünlü

    Benedetto Croce is an important figure for both Italian intellectual life (through his philosophical and historical writings) and the political history of Italy (through his work as a politician). … READ MORE

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  • D'Annunzio, Gabriele

    By Vanda Wilcox

    One of Italy’s leading literary figures, Gabriele D’Annunzio agitated for Italian intervention in the war in 1915. After serving as a volunteer fighter pilot, he led a group of fellow … READ MORE

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  • Diaz, Armando, Duke of Victory

    By Alessandro Salvador

    Armando Diaz was an Italian officer and a general during World War I. In 1917, after the defeat of Caporetto, he replaced Luigi Cadorna as chief of general staff of the Italian army. He reformed the … READ MORE

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  • Empire

    By Erez Manela

    World War I was not simply a conflict among European states but a global war of empires. The fighting took place not only in Europe, but also in Africa, Asia, and across the Middle East, and it … READ MORE

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  • Fear

    By Jan Plamper

    Of the two world wars, the First World War was special in that fear figured prominently in a number of domains, including military tactics, psychiatry, and first-person sources. Fear was to be … READ MORE

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  • Feminist Pacifism

    By Annika Wilmers

    A minority section of the women’s movements opposed World War I and organized the International Congress of Women at The Hague in April 1915. Its participants demanded women’s rights and more … READ MORE

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  • Flamethrower

    By Paul Cornish

    The use of portable flamethrowers in combat was a First World War innovation. The German army took the lead in developing this form of warfare and remained the foremost practitioner of it throughout … READ MORE

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  • Giardino, Gaetano Ettore

    By Andrea Argenio

    Gaetano Giardino was an Italian general best remembered for his role as commander of the Fourth Army, the army of the Grappa, and as minister of war during the parliamentary crisis of June 1917. In … READ MORE

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  • Giolitti, Giovanni

    By Spencer Di Scala

    Giovanni Giolitti favored the increased liberalization of Italy, which encouraged its estrangement from the Triple Alliance. He consistently refused to recognize that Italy’s partners’ aggressive … READ MORE

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  • Gorizia, Battle of

    By Francesco Frizzera

    The Battle of Gorizia, known as the Sixth Isonzo’s Battle, was fought by the Italian Third Army against the Austro-Hungarian Fifth Army between 6 and 16 August 1916. It resulted in the Italian … READ MORE

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  • Interventionism (Italy)

    By Stéfanie Prezioso

    Italy entered the First World War in May 1915, roughly ten months after it began. During those ten months, the battle of opinions for and against intervention raged on. Public meetings, … READ MORE

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  • Isonzo, Battles of

    By Alessandro Salvador

    The battles of Isonzo represented Italy’s main offensive efforts against the Austro-Hungarian Empire during World War I. The eleven battles took place between 1915 and 1917 along the Isonzo River … READ MORE

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  • Italian Irredentism

    By Matthew Stibbe

    This article examines the history of Italian irredentism before 1915; and its place its role in Italy’s entry into the war in May 1915 and in Austro-Hungary’s military governance of the … READ MORE

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  • Italo-Turkish War 1911-1912

    By Rachel Simon

    The Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912) took place mainly in Ottoman Libya following Italy’s invasion, not taking into consideration the fierce Ottoman and indigenous … READ MORE

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  • London, Treaty of (1915)

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    The Treaty of London was a secret agreement signed by Italy, Great Britain, France, and Russia on 26 April 1915, bringing Italy into the First World War on the Entente side. It therefore had a … READ MORE

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  • Machine Gun

    By Paul Cornish

    Between 1914 and 1918, the machine gun played an ever-increasing role on the battlefield. Today, even though artillery was responsible for the majority of deaths, the machine gun is the weapon most … READ MORE

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  • Masculinities

    By Sonja Levsen

    The First World War represents the apex of the ideal of the male warrior hero. Between 1914 and 1918, both the soldiers themselves and combatant societies relied upon gendered language to make sense … READ MORE

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  • Mediterranean Theater, Naval Operations

    By Paul G. Halpern

    The real naval war in the Mediterranean turned out to be a struggle against German and Austrian submarines and not a classic battle between major … READ MORE

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  • Militarized Workers (Italy)

    By Martina Salvante

    In 1915 the Italian government created an agency called ''Mobilitazione Industriale'' (Industrial Mobilisation) to manage economic activities and labour relations in wartime. The MI attempted to … READ MORE

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  • Military Volunteers (Italy)

    By Sante Lesti

    The history of the Italian military volunteers concerns not only the roughly 10,000 men who chose to fight without (or before) being drafted, but also the approximately 6,000 Italians who served in … READ MORE

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  • Monte Grappa, Battle of

    By Francesco Cutolo

    After the battle of Caporetto, the Austro-German army launched several attacks against Mount Grappa to break through the Italian line. The battle was fought in two phases: between 13 and 26 November, … READ MORE

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  • Mussolini, Benito

    By Brian R. Sullivan

    Italian Socialist Benito Mussolini envisioned war as the prerequisite for revolution. He helped push Italy into World War I. After combat service and medical discharge in 1917, he demanded war until … READ MORE

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  • Naval Warfare (Italy)

    By Fabio De Ninno

    Italy’s war at sea reflected the more general trends of the naval warfare in the Great War: a stalemate that turned into a war of naval attrition. Only after harsh losses to national shipping and … READ MORE

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  • Nitti, Francesco Saverio

    By Pierluigi Pironti

    Francesco Nitti was minister of the Treasury in the Orlando Cabinet after the defeat of Caporetto in 1917 and prime minister of Italy in 1919. During his mandate he signed the treaty of … READ MORE

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  • Ojetti, Ugo

    By Selena Daly

    Ugo Ojetti was a journalist who, during the war, was tasked with the protection of monuments and artworks in the Italian-occupied territories. He was also instrumental in establishing and managing … READ MORE

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  • Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele

    By Spencer Di Scala

    A renowned jurist with lasting influence, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando served as justice and interior minister between 1916 and 1917, implementing liberal policies despite strong opposition. As prime … READ MORE

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  • Orphans (Italy)

    By Giuseppe Ferraro

    This article focuses on the efforts of the Italian government and certain institutions to care for the high numbers of war orphans in the country. In addition to a brief reconstruction of the … READ MORE

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  • Piave, Battles of

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    The two battles of the River Piave were fought between 10 November and 25 December 1917, and 15-23 June 1918, respectively. The Austro-Hungarian army, supported by German units, tried to bring about … READ MORE

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  • Pope Benedict XV

    By John Pollard

    Much of the reign of Pope Benedict XV was dominated by the First World War. Pope Benedict deplored this war and thus, together with his Secretary of State, he tried to bring an end to it through … READ MORE

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  • Pre-war Socialist Pacifism

    By Elisa Marcobelli

    The Socialists’ opposition to war in France, Germany and Italy during the period of the Second International (1889-1914) was contradictory. They tried to combine internationalism, antiwar … READ MORE

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  • Rape

    By Antoine Rivière

    Although rape was not usually systematic, it occurred frequently on all fronts during the First World War, during both invasion and occupation periods. It was often used in propaganda to discredit … READ MORE

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  • Salandra, Antonio

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    Antonio Salandra was an important Italian politician in the early 20th century. When the Great War broke out, he was prime minister of Italy and had a decisive yet controversial role in … READ MORE

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  • Sonnino, Sidney

    By Paola Carlucci

    Sidney Sonnino was the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs during World War I. He negotiated the Treaty of London, defining the terms with which Italy would enter into the war alongside the Triple … READ MORE

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  • Stormtrooper

    By Ralf Raths

    Storm troopers were soldiers in specialized assault units, which emerged in the German army during the First World … READ MORE

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  • Supreme War Council

    By Elizabeth Greenhalgh

    The Supreme War Council was an Allied administrative organisation, created by the Entente governments in November 1917 to coordinate their military action. Its most significant achievement was to … READ MORE

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  • Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Rome

    By Martina Salvante

    At the end of the Great War, many countries determined that they would bury an anonymous corpse to symbolize all those who died on the battlefields. In Italy, the ceremony for the entombment of the … READ MORE

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  • Trentino

    By Nicola Fontana and Mirko Saltori

    Trentino is an Italian-speaking region which was the southernmost part of the Tyrol. With Italy’s entry into the war, it found itself in the front area. After the war it was annexed to the Kingdom … READ MORE

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  • Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    Victor Emmanuel III played an important, if often overlooked part in Italy’s decision to intervene in World War I on the side of the Entente. During the war, he managed to solve two political … READ MORE

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  • Vittoria Mutilata

    By Brian R. Sullivan

    Gabriele D’Annunzio’s phrase “mutilated victory” infers that Italy’s wartime sacrifices went unrewarded, but excessive Italian demands and inept diplomacy in Paris provoked French and … READ MORE

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  • Vittorio Veneto, Battle of

    By Francesco Frizzera

    The Battle of Vittorio Veneto was fought between 24 October and 4 November 1918 by the Italian 4th, 8th, 10th and 12th Armies against the Austro-Hungarian … READ MORE

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  • War and Comics (Italy)

    By Roberto Bianchi

    Comics played a very important role in the total mobilization in Italy. Firstly in the cities and then in the trenches, they were a new propaganda tool and explanation of the war for children and … READ MORE

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  • War Poetry

    By Jane Potter

    This article examines the concept of war poetry and considers the range of poetic responses generated by the Great War from an international … READ MORE

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  • War Profiteers

    By François Bouloc

    As a long-lasting industrial war, the Great War led to the realization of considerable profits throughout industrialized countries. Both real and imagined, they structured many wartime facets, from … READ MORE

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  • War Widows

    By Peggy Bette

    One third of the 9.7 million soldiers killed or declared missing during the Great War left behind a widow. The mourning of these women was conditioned as much by the social conventions practiced … READ MORE

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