Regions Belgium

Survey Articles (Regional)

• Belgium

  By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

  

  Belgium, a neutral state, was forced into the First World War by a German ultimatum, a fact with considerable international resonance. The war had a deep impact on what was, in 1914, the most … READ MORE

  Regional

Regional Thematic Articles

• Bereavement and Mourning (Belgium)

  By Laurence van Ypersele

  

  World War I claimed the lives of approximately 60,000 Belgian civilians and soldiers. Belgium was uniquely situated in the middle of the conflict and suffered civilian massacres in August 1914 and … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Belgium)

  By Rose Spijkerman

  

  This article discusses the war experiences of Belgian soldiers: how did they endure four years of war and how did the Army Command keep up morale and maintain discipline? Insights into the morale of … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen (Belgium)

  By Laurence van Ypersele

  

  The scope of the commemorations that developed in Belgium and in the remainder of Europe showed the population’s need to keep the memory of World War I alive. The majority of Belgian municipalities … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Film/Cinema (Belgium)

  By Leen Engelen

  

  This article examines cinema in relation to the First World War in Belgium from two focal points. First, it describes how film production as well as film exhibition and cinema-going became cultural … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Food and Nutrition (Belgium)

  By Antoon Vrints

  

  The First World War had a severe impact on the food supply in occupied Belgium. The prospect of famine turned food into an urgent political problem and the subject of far-reaching social-political … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Belgium)

  By Emmanuel Gerard

  

  The First World War changed the balance of power in Belgium. From a strongly polarized system dominated by the Catholic Party, the country shifted towards a coalition system, marked by a tradeoff … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Historiography 1918-Today (Belgium)

  By Nico Wouters

  After a promising start, academic historiography of the First World War in Belgium fell silent after 1928. There was nothing that resembled an academic field of World War I studies in Belgium for … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Labour (Belgium)

  By Dirk Luyten

  

  The standard of living of Belgian workers declined in the First World War as a consequence of the economic standstill, as well as German monetary and economic exploitation, which led to a sharp … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Labour Movements, Trade Unions and Strikes (Belgium)

  By Antoon Vrints

  

  The First World War had a decisive, but paradoxical impact on the development of labour movements in Belgium. The occupation abruptly interrupted the development of labour movement structures. In the … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Literature (Belgium)

  By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

  

  Belgium’s war literature, in both Dutch (Flemish) and in French, covers different war experiences: not just that of the front but also that of military occupation. Although none of it became … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Making Sense of the War (Belgium)

  By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

  

  Belgium’s war experience was ''sui generis''. The vast majority of Belgians experienced the war neither at the front nor on the home front, but under German occupation. The article analyzes the … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Occupation after the War (Belgium and France)

  By Anne Godfroid

  

  The Armistice agreement foresaw the occupation of the left bank of the Rhine, the dates of which were set by the Treaty of Versailles. The inter-allied occupation was a long-term endeavour: the … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Occupation during the War (Belgium and France)

  By Larissa Wegner

  

  This article examines the German occupation of Belgium and Northern France in 1914–1918. Besides focussing on the occupiers’ motives and logic of action regarding their policy and practices, it … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Organization of War Economies (Belgium)

  By Dirk Luyten

  

  As it became clear that the war would last a long time, the German occupying administration set up a system to control Belgian industry, in order to guarantee that the Belgian economy would … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Post-war Economies (Belgium)

  By Dirk Luyten

  

  Belgium had suffered considerable economic losses during the war, which was fought on part of its territory. Aside from the direct damages as a result of warfare, industry nearly came to a standstill … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Post-war Societies (Belgium)

  By Chantal Kesteloot

  

  The end of the First World War marked, to a certain extent, Belgium’s entry into the 20^th century. The country suffered greatly from the occupation and an explosion of patriotism, … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Press/Journalism (Belgium)

  By Pierre Van Den Dungen

  

  The Belgian press world was turned upside down by the German occupation. Most of the editorial offices of the news dailies ceased all activity or went abroad. Yet a press under censorship did … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Pre-war Military Planning (Belgium)

  By Christophe Bechet

  

  Following the Treaty of London in 1839, pre-war planning theories in Belgium oscillated between two positions: secure and defend endangered borders or create a powerful military stronghold in … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Prisoners of War (Belgium and France)

  By Heather Jones

  

  During the First World War, France was faced with creating a system of mass captivity for German prisoners of war and German civilian internees, both at home and in its overseas Empire. It largely … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Propaganda at Home (Belgium)

  By Bénédicte Rochet

  

  August 1914: “Poor Little Belgium”, martyred by the German invader, became an effective symbol used by international belligerents to sharpen their propaganda weapons. However, in 1916, the … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Science and Technology (Belgium)

  By Kenneth Bertrams

  

  The invasion and subsequent occupation of most of Belgian territory paralyzed the scientific and technological capacities of the country during the war and its aftermath. At the same time, the … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Belgium)

  By Hubert van Tuyll

  

  Belgium’s war aims were a direct consequence of the way in which the country was created. The treaties finalized in 1839 left Belgium with part of Luxembourg and Limburg, and also left the Scheldt … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Warfare 1914-1918 (Belgium)

  By Tom Simoens

  

  Between August 1914 and November 1918 the Belgian army took part in the First World War against the German aggressor. This article describes the way the Belgian army fought this war that began … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• War Finance (Belgium)

  By Dirk Luyten

  

  The Belgian monetary system evolved dramatically during World War I. The ''Société Générale'', a large private bank, replaced the National Bank as issuing house. New banknotes were printed and … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• War Losses (Belgium)

  By Benoît Majerus

  

  The Belgian situation was unique in the sense that military losses were relatively limited compared to neighbouring countries due to the wait-and-see strategy pursued by King Albert I and a less … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Women's Mobilization for War (Belgium)

  By Eliane Gubin, Els Flour and Marie Kympers

  

  Belgium experienced the war in an exceptional position: it never issued a declaration of war, but was drawn into it by the brutal invasion of its territory. Both men and women were subject to a harsh … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

Encyclopedic Entries

• Activisme

  By Antoon Vrints

  

  A minority of the adherents of the Flemish movement were willing to collaborate with the German occupier in the context of ''Flamenpolitik''. This minority labelled themselves “activists”, … READ MORE

  Entry

• Albert I, King of the Belgians

  By Jan Velaers

  

  Albert I, the third king of the Belgians, played a leading role as supreme commander of the Belgian army during the First World War. For four years he defended the last piece of unoccupied Belgium … READ MORE

  Entry

• Amphibious Raids on Ostend and Zeebrugge

  By Mark D. Karau

  

  On the night of 22-23 April 1918, the Royal Navy attacked the German occupied towns of Ostend and Zeebrugge in an effort to block the canals that linked the two cities to the German naval base at … READ MORE

  Entry

• Attrition Warfare

  By Nicholas Murray

  

  Attrition warfare is the term used to describe the sustained process of wearing down an opponent so as to force their physical collapse through continuous losses in personnel, equipment and supplies … READ MORE

  Entry

• Belgian Soldiers

  By Tom Simoens

  

  This article briefly describes the 320,000 Belgian soldiers of the Great War. Who were they and what was special about the way they experienced the war compared to other … READ MORE

  Entry

• Bettignies, Louise Marie Jeanne Henriette de

  By Chantal Antier

  

  Louise de Bettignies created an intelligence network for the British in occupied France. She was arrested, sentenced to death in March 1916 and deported to the prison of Siegburg. Sick, she died in … READ MORE

  Entry

• Bissing, Moritz Ferdinand Freiherr von

  By Christoph Roolf and Thomas L. Gertzen

  

  Moritz von Bissing was born on 30 January 1844, in Bellmannsdorf, Silesia, then part of the German Empire. He served as governor general of the Prussian Army from December 1914 until his death on 18 … READ MORE

  Entry

• Borms, August

  By Christine Van Everbroeck

  As a Flemish nationalist, August Borms actively collaborated with the Germans during the First World War. As a result of his ten-year imprisonment and his death sentence he became a true symbol of … READ MORE

  Entry

• Broqueville, Charles Marie Pierre Albert, Baron de

  By Laurence van Ypersele

  

  Charles de Broqueville, chief of the Belgian government during the First World War, acted as liaison between the king and the Belgian government. He supported the king in his attempts to obtain peace … READ MORE

  Entry

• Brussels

  By Chantal Kesteloot

  

  The Belgian capital was spared the anguish of combat, but the city suffered four long years of occupation. In fact, it became the most important occupied city during the First World War. For the … READ MORE

  Entry

• Camouflage

  By Cécile Coutin

  

  A technique of concealment and protection, a means to deceive but not kill, camouflage was significantly developed during the First World War. The technique enabled many artists to put their talents … READ MORE

  Entry

• Charleroi, Battle of

  By Erwan Le Gall

  

  The Battle of Charleroi (21-23 August 1914), in which General Charles Lanrezac’s Fifth Army was nearly surrounded by German First, Second and Third Armies, was one of the deadliest combats that … READ MORE

  Entry

• Collaboration (Belgium and France)

  By James E. Connolly

  

  Collaboration is often associated with the military occupations of the Second World War, but there was a precursor to this multi-faceted phenomenon in occupied France and Belgium during the First … READ MORE

  Entry

• Comité National de Secours et d'Alimentation

  By Michaël Amara

  

  The ''Comité national de Secours et d’Alimentation'' (National Committee for Relief and Food) was created in Brussels a few days after the start of the war to coordinate the action of notables, … READ MORE

  Entry

• Commission for Relief in Belgium (CRB)

  By Branden Little

  

  From 1914 to 1919, the Commission for Relief in Belgium directed an innovative and successful international food relief program for more than 9 million Belgian and French civilians who lived in … READ MORE

  Entry

• Discussion: Humanitarianism

  By Peter Gatrell, Rebecca Gill, Branden Little and Elisabeth Piller

  This is the first in what it is hoped will become a series of discussion forums hosted by ''1914-1918-online''. In this discussion forum, General Editor Peter Gatrell invited contributions that … READ MORE

  Entry

• Elisabeth of Bavaria, Queen of the Belgians

  By Laurence van Ypersele

  

  Queen Elisabeth was the third queen of the Belgians. Her attitude during the First World War propelled her to the mythic rank of "Queen … READ MORE

  Entry

• Eupen-Malmedy

  By Christoph Brüll

  

  Eupen-Malmedy is the name given to the two districts that Germany ceded to Belgium in 1920 as a consequence of the Treaty of Versailles. This cession and the semblance of a “referendum”, … READ MORE

  Entry

• Feminist Pacifism

  By Annika Wilmers

  

  A minority section of the women’s movements opposed World War I and organized the International Congress of Women at The Hague in April 1915. Its participants demanded women’s rights and more … READ MORE

  Entry

• Flamenpolitik

  By Antoon Vrints

  

  The German ''Flamenpolitik'' during the First World War aimed to instrumentalise the Flemish movement in order to ensure lasting German control over Belgium. It did not divide the Belgian or even … READ MORE

  Entry

• Flemish Movement

  By Christine Van Everbroeck

  

  The First World War engendered a rift within the Flemish movement, with some wishing to pursue the advocacy for Flemish rights and others preferring to await the end of the war to obtain new laws. … READ MORE

  Entry

• Forts

  By Miguel A. Lopez

  

  European militaries considered fortifications before the First World War as vital to their strategic planning. Advancements in weapons technology after the mid-19^th century caused … READ MORE

  Entry

• Garde Civique

  By Piet Veldeman

  

  In 1830, Belgium constituted a ''Garde Civique'' or Civic Guard''', '''a national institution to be deployed both for maintaining law and order and for territorial defence. In 1914, the Garde Civique … READ MORE

  Entry

• Generalgouvernement Belgien

  By Christoph Roolf

  

  After the German Army had occupied wide areas of Belgium, the “Imperial Government General in Belgium” was established on 23 August 1914 with a governor-general at its head. Organized into a … READ MORE

  Entry

• German Communities and their Expulsion (Belgium)

  By Christophe Declercq

  

  At the start of the First World War, tens of thousands of Germans lived in Belgium, with noted communities in Antwerp and Brussels. How the Germans in Belgium experienced the war years, ranging from … READ MORE

  Entry

• High Voltage Fence (The Netherlands and Belgium)

  By Alex Vanneste

  

  In 1915 the Germans built an electric fence along the Belgian-Dutch border, consisting of three lines of wires which were intended to stop all disturbing border activities that might severely harm … READ MORE

  Entry

• Intimate Relations between Occupiers and Occupied (Belgium and France)

  By Emmanuel Debruyne

  

  During the invasion and occupation of 1914-1918, German soldiers had sexual relations with local women in Belgium and France. There were many cases of rape during the invasion, but the occupation … READ MORE

  Entry

• La Dame Blanche

  By Pierre Decock

  

  La Dame Blanche was an intelligence network created in Belgium in 1916. It was essentially devoted to the observation of railways. At the end of the war, it was comprised of over 1,000 agents and … READ MORE

  Entry

• La Fontaine, Henri

  By Jacques Gillen

  

  Although he was a Nobel Prize winner, the name of Henri La Fontaine has somewhat fallen into obscurity. At the time of his Nobel Peace Prize award in 1913, however, he was a fundamental figure in the … READ MORE

  Entry

• Loppem Coup

  By Vincent Delcorps

  

  A few weeks before his entry in Brussels, on 22 November 1918, Albert I, King of the Belgians, held talks with various politicians in Loppem Castle. Some particularly important decisions were made, … READ MORE

  Entry

• Marinegebiet

  By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

  

  The ''Marinegebiet'' on the Belgian coast was the Imperial German Navy’s base for attritional warfare against Entente shipping in the North Sea. The resulting occupation regime was particularly … READ MORE

  Entry

• Max, Adolphe

  By Laurence van Ypersele

  

  Adolphe Max, the mayor of Brussels, was known for his peaceful resistance against the Germans and his resulting jail-time. He was considered by the Belgian public as a hero of the Great … READ MORE

  Entry

• Mémorial Interallié

  By Karla Vanraepenbusch

  

  The inter-allied memorial commemorates the First World War and the fallen, as well as the wartime cooperation between the Allies. Its inter-allied character and its scale make this memorial one of a … READ MORE

  Entry

• Mercier, Désiré Joseph

  By Luc Courtois

  

  After his pastoral letter ''Patriotisme et endurance'', which had a worldwide impact, the Cardinal Archbishop of Mechlin, Désiré Mercier, was seen both in Belgium and abroad as the incarnation of … READ MORE

  Entry

• Mons

  By Guillaume Blondeau

  

  The city of Mons took on great symbolic importance during the Great War. In both August 1914 and November 1918, the region was the scene of clashes between Commonwealth troops and German soldiers. … READ MORE

  Entry

• Neutrality

  By Samuël Kruizinga

  

  During the 19^th century, neutrality evolved into a set of legal and political tools designed to limit the impact of wars on the international system. This form of neutrality did not … READ MORE

  Entry

• Olympic Games 1920

  By Karla Vanraepenbusch

  

  The 1920 Olympic Games in Antwerp, Belgium were the first instalment of the Games since before the war. The planned 1916 Games awarded to Berlin had been … READ MORE

  Entry

• Patriotic Distance

  By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

  

  Civilians under military occupation in World War One found their existences severely circumscribed, but they exercised agency – not through large-scale, decisive actions, but through small-scale … READ MORE

  Entry

• Petit, Gabrielle

  By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

  

  Gabrielle Petit was a secret intelligence agent working for the British General Headquarters (GHQ) in occupied Belgium. She collected information on the German Sixth Army in the Tournai-Lille area. … READ MORE

  Entry

• Pirenne, Henri

  By Geneviève Warland

  

  Accused of refusing to collaborate with the German authorities, the Belgian historian Henri Pirenne was deported to Germany in 1916. His captivity led him to reconsider his view on German historical … READ MORE

  Entry

• Post-war Repression

  By Xavier Rousseaux

  

  After fifty months of German occupation, a minority of French, and the majority of 7 million Belgians, experienced a new and massive process of retribution. A comparative study of these retribution … READ MORE

  Entry

• Prostitution

  By Journey Steward

  

  Prostitution was considered among the most important societal problems facing civilian-military authorities in belligerent countries during World War I. Despite growing military control of the … READ MORE

  Entry

• Rape

  By Antoine Rivière

  

  Although rape was not usually systematic, it occurred frequently on all fronts during the First World War, during both invasion and occupation periods. It was often used in propaganda to discredit … READ MORE

  Entry

• Rear Area on the Western Front

  By Larissa Wegner

  

  The rear area was the space behind the front, linking the operational zone with the home territory. While this area constituted a place of calm and recreation for soldiers returning from front duty, … READ MORE

  Entry

• Refugees (Belgium)

  By Michaël Amara

  

  In Belgium, the outbreak of the First World War and subsequent German invasion caused massive population movements. Hundreds of thousands of Belgian refugees fled the country to seek asylum in the … READ MORE

  Entry

• Resistance (Belgium and France)

  By Emmanuel Debruyne

  

  In occupied Belgium and France, citizens opposed the German army with organized but non-violent resistance. They created networks dedicated to military intelligence gathering, escape lines, … READ MORE

  Entry

• Ruhr Occupation

  By Conan Fischer

  

  The 1923-1925 Ruhr occupation by France and Belgium was triggered when Germany defaulted on its reparations obligations. A passive resistance campaign obstructed the invaders but collapsed in … READ MORE

  Entry

• Russian Expeditionary Force

  By Sofya Anisimova and Gwendal Piégais

  The Russian Expeditionary Force in France and in Macedonia (“Brigades russes en France et en Macédoine” in French and “Russkij èkspedicionnyj korpus” in Russian) was an ensemble of four … READ MORE

  Entry

• Russian Expeditionary Force

  By Sofya Anisimova and Gwendal Piégais

  

  The Russian Expeditionary Force in France and in Macedonia (“Brigades russes en France et en Macédoine” in French and “Russkij èkspedicionnyj korpus” in Russian) was an ensemble of four … READ MORE

  Entry

• Solvay, Ernest

  By Kenneth Bertrams

  

  Industrial tycoon and philanthropist Ernest Solvay transformed the chemical industry by developing a groundbreaking process for the manufacturing of soda ash. At the outbreak of World War I, he … READ MORE

  Entry

• University of Ghent

  By Christine Van Everbroeck

  

  During the war, the Germans created a Flemish university in Ghent. By doing so, they fulfilled one of the Flemish movement’s principal … READ MORE

  Entry

• Villalobar, Rodrigo de Saavedra y Vinent, Marqués de

  By Emmanuel Debruyne

  

  Rodrigo de Saavedra y Vinent, Marqués de Villalobar was the diplomatic representative of Spain to Belgium from 1913 to 1926. During the war, his humanitarian activities in occupied Belgium … READ MORE

  Entry

• Ypres, Battles of

  By Spencer Jones

  

  The Belgian city of Ypres is synonymous with the First World War. Ypres gave its name to three major battles: First Ypres (19 October - 22 November 1914), Second Ypres (21 April - 25 May 1915) and … READ MORE

  Entry

• Ypres Menin Gate

  By Dominiek Dendooven

  

  The Menin Gate in Ypres is the best known of the memorials to the missing in the Commonwealth War Graves Commission's care. Designed by architect Sir Reginald Blomfield it is where the Last Post, the … READ MORE

  Entry

See also

• Alliance System 1914

  By Günther Kronenbitter

  

  Alliances were an important feature of the international system on the eve of World War I. The formation of rival blocs of Great Powers has previously considered a major cause of the outbreak of war … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Antisemitism

  By Werner Bergmann and Ulrich Wyrwa

  

  The First World War and its direct repercussions in the postwar period (revolution, counterrevolution, the founding of republics, and the Paris peace treaties) mark a profound caesura not only in the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Atrocities

  By Alan Kramer

  

  The term "atrocity" describes an act of violence condemned by contemporaries as a breach of morality or the laws of war. "Atrocities" are culturally constructed; by 1914, an international discourse … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Bereavement and Mourning

  By Manfred Hettling and Tino Schölz

  

  In the modern era, new forms of mourning and meaning-making for fallen soldiers emerged. The human losses of the First World War were largely mourned, honoured and remembered within … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Centenary (Battlefield Tourism)

  By Romain Fathi

  

  The centenary of the First World War has been a catalyst for battlefield tourism. The creation of new museums, memorials, statues, commemorative trails and the like has strengthened the Great War’s … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Centenary (Computer Games)

  By Chris Kempshall

  

  The First World War centenary saw an emergence of new portrayals of the conflict in computer games. These new games sought either to tell new stories of war and conflict during the time period or to … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Centenary (Education, Pedagogy, Youth Programs)

  By Catriona Pennell

  

  The centenary of the First World War revealed palpable anxieties around a loss of connection to an event that was now 100 years old and without any living survivors. As a result, a good degree of … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Centenary (Internet)

  By Lorna M. Hughes and Ian G. Anderson

  The centenary events surrounding the First World War have produced a significant amount of digital content in various forms, and thus has set a precedent for how large scale post-war memorisation can … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Centenary (Libraries)

  By Matthew Shaw

  

  Libraries (local, specialist, and national) contributed in numerous and important ways to commemorative activities during the centenary of the First World War. These included making use of their … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Centenary (Museums)

  By Andrea Brait

  

  This article discusses how European museums – in particular, national war museums – dealt with the centenary of World War I. These museums still tend to tell the story of World War I from a … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Centenary (Visual Arts)

  By Paul Gough

  

  The commemorative period between 2014 and 2018 was marked globally by numerous exhibitions of original artworks that had been commissioned and created during and immediately after World War 1. Most … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Colonial Empires after the War/Decolonization

  By James E. Kitchen

  

  The First World War saw the colonial empires of France and Britain mobilised to aid European and imperial war efforts. This mobilisation and the difficulties of demobilisation placed considerable … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen

  By Stéphane Tison

  

  The First World War ushered in an unprecedented wave of commemorations. Mass death elicited a construction spree in memorial objects and sites across all countries and territories involved in the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Controversy: War-related Changes in Gender Relations: The Issue of Women’s Citizenship

  By Birgitta Bader-Zaar

  

  The idea that World War I was a watershed in gender relations has pervaded both contemporary narratives and historiography. In contrast to earlier studies, research now tends to give a more nuanced … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Destruction of the Ecosystem

  By Tait Keller

  

  This article examines the First World War’s ecological impact and shows that protracted environmental transformations resulted more from expanded industrial modes of production than heavy combat. … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Espionage

  By Emmanuel Debruyne

  

  During the entire war, warring powers used the “secret war” to try to break the balance of the battlefield. Generally created in the previous few decades, intelligence and security services saw … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Film/Cinema

  By Roger Smither

  

  The First World War played a significant role in the evolution of film both as a medium for reporting war and as a tool for the propagandist manipulation of public opinion to support the war effort. … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Food and Nutrition

  By Emmanuelle Cronier

  

  During the First World War, food became a major issue for military and civilian matters. This contribution aims to discuss the food situation in the belligerent countries in connection with global … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Forced Labour

  By Jens Thiel and Christian Westerhoff

  

  This article examines the conditions, forms and consequences of forced labor and recruitment during the First World War, especially in German-occupied northern France, Belgium, Russian-Poland and … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Governments, Parliaments and Parties

  By Torsten Oppelland

  

  One sees a wide range of political regimes from a democratic republic with universal male suffrage (France) to parliamentary, constitutional, or even oligarchical monarchies in the countries that … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Imperialism

  By Boris Barth

  

  This article focuses on the extent to which imperialism contributed to the outbreak of the First World War. The first part describes the emergence of specific imperialist cultures and attitudes in … READ MORE

  Thematic

• International Labour Organization

  By Anita Ziegerhofer

  

  The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919, establishing both the League of Nations and another international organization: the International Labour Organization (ILO). The ILO was founded … READ MORE

  Thematic

• International Law and the Laws of War

  By Jean H. Quataert

  

  The article examines international efforts to curb states’ war-making prerogatives in the second half of the “long” 19^th century. It captures new humanitarian sentiments circulating … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Labor

  By Steven E. Rowe

  

  Across the major belligerent powers, industrial production and the mobilization and organization of industrial labor became central to the conduct of the First World War. States and private … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Labour Movements, Trade Unions and Strikes

  By James Thompson

  

  This article compares the history of labour movements during the war across a range of European countries. It charts the impact of the economic realities of the war upon labour and analyses the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• League of Nations

  By Anita Ziegerhofer

  

  READ MORE

  Thematic

• Making Sense of the War

  By Jo Fox

  

  Claims to “just war” formed the basis for the propaganda campaigns of the First World War. Propaganda on all sides focused on three interrelated issues to endorse the decision to enter the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Maps, Geography and the Representation of Space

  By Ute Schneider

  

  READ MORE

  Thematic

• Media Discourse after the War

  By André Keil

  

  The discourse about the Great War during the interwar period was shaped by numerous factors. The emergence of new media facilitated the use of new forms of expression and profoundly changed the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Medicine and Medical Service

  By Leo van Bergen

  

  It is impossible to talk about “the” medical care or “the” medical service of World War I. Medical care varied greatly, depending on geography, strategy, and national, social, or economic … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Memory of the War: Popular Memory 1918-1945, 1945 to the Present

  By Susanne Brandt

  

  What role do representations of the First World War play in media that reach a wide audience beyond the circle of experts? The following contribution focuses on this important question. Given the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Negotiating and Mediating Conduct of War

  By Matthew Stibbe

  

  Many issues surrounding the conduct of war in the years 1914-1918 were impervious to international negotiation or mediation, due either to a complete lack of consensus or to an absence of trust and … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Non-European Soldiers

  By Richard Fogarty and Andrew Tait Jarboe

  

  This article examines the use by Great Britain and France of colonial subjects from their empires to fight during the First World War. Other Great War soldiers hailed from locations outside of … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Occupation during the War

  By Gustavo Corni

  

  After an initial wave of interest in 1914 and the immediate post-war period, international historiography long neglected the wartime occupation of territories inhabited by large civilian populations. … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Photography

  By Hilary Roberts

  

  The First World War represents a watershed in the history of war photography. It was the first conflict to be photographed in detail by all the participants and the first in which photography was … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Post-war Societies

  By Richard Bessel

  

  The First World War caused unprecedented disruption to societies across the globe, from Western and (especially) Central and Eastern Europe to East Africa. While many survivors could celebrate an end … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Propaganda at Home and Abroad

  By Eberhard Demm

  

  This article summarizes and compares the principal arguments and strategies of propaganda at the home front, the military front, as well as in neutral and enemy countries. These included the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Refugees

  By Peter Gatrell

  

  This article addresses the scale of wartime population displacement in continental Europe, the relief efforts made on behalf of refugees, their impact on host communities, and the cultural … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Resettlement

  By Peter Gatrell

  

  The conduct of warfare in 1914-1918 included extensive population resettlement in all theatres of war in Europe, both as a result of pre-emptive decisions by civilians to flee in order to evade the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Social Conflict

  By Claire Morelon

  

  This article deals with the nature of social conflict during the war. The length of the conflict and growing food shortages on the home front strained relations between individuals and between social … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Social Costs of War

  By Kimberly A. Redding

  

  This article explores how the anticipation, reality, and memory of sacrifice informed experiences and legacies of World War I. Drawing on representative examples from multiple nations, I suggest that … READ MORE

  Thematic

• State, Civil Society and Relief Organizations for War

  By Branden Little

  

  A vast array of initiatives designed to counteract the destructiveness of the First World War was developed by states and societies across the world. Protecting the bodies and minds of soldiers from … READ MORE

  Thematic

• The Everyday as Involved in War

  By Tammy M. Proctor

  

  This essay examines how the "everyday" functions in war, not only for those on the home fronts, but for those in combat roles and for those living between the lines. Five important qualities, among … READ MORE

  Thematic

• The Paris Peace Conference and its Consequences

  By Alan Sharp

  

  This article offers an overview of peacemaking after the First World War from the armistices of 1918 until 1923. It considers the outcomes of the five Parisian treaties (Versailles, Saint-Germain and … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Visualization of Violence

  By Mark Connelly

  

  This piece explores the visualisation of violence for home front audiences and shows that violence was often hinted at very strongly, but the actual act was avoided. All home front audiences were … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Wartime Emotions: Honour, Shame, and the Ecstasy of Sacrifice

  By Ute Frevert

  

  Through investigating the pivotal role of honour in private and public matters, in foreign and domestic relations, and in propaganda and everyday life during the First World War, this article … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Willingly to War. Public Response to the Outbreak of War

  By Jean-Jacques Becker

  

  It may surprise us to learn that some sectors of the European public were in favour of the war in 1914. The impact of modern weapons was not well understood and many people in the government, … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Women War Reporters

  By Stephanie Seul

  

  Female war reporters from belligerent and neutral countries were present in the major war theatres in Europe and the Middle East throughout 1914 to 1918. While admission of journalists to the war … READ MORE

  Thematic