The First World War and its direct repercussions in the postwar period (revoluti…
493 Results
Survey Articles (Thematic)
Thematic
Antisemitism
By Werner Bergmann, Ulrich Wyrwa
Thematic
Burgfrieden/Union sacrée
By Gerd Krumeich
France and Germany remained principal protagonists of the First World War. This …
Thematic
Civilian and Military Power
By Lawrence Sondhaus
By 1914 the leading states had succumbed to varying degrees of militarism, subor…
Thematic
Controversy: Total War
By Daniel Marc Segesser
Total war is a controversial term used in the past by politicians, publicists an…
Thematic
Crumbling of Empires and Emerging States: Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia as (Multi)national Countries
By Katrin Boeckh
During the First World War, Czechoslovakia and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats,…
Thematic
Enemy Aliens and Internment
By Matthew Stibbe
The internment of enemy aliens in the First World War was a global phenomenon. C…
Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties
By Torsten Oppelland
One sees a wide range of political regimes from a democratic republic with unive…
Thematic
International Labour Organization
By Anita Ziegerhofer
The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919, establishing both the Leagu…
Thematic
League of Nations
By Anita Ziegerhofer
The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919, the same day on which the L…
Thematic
Pacifism
By David S. Patterson
The idea of peace in total war may seem irrelevant, but pacifism, or peace activ…
Thematic
Peace Initiatives
By Ross Kennedy
This paper examines major peace initiatives during World War I. It describes eff…
Thematic
Resettlement
By Peter Gatrell
The conduct of warfare in 1914-1918 included extensive population resettlement i…
Thematic
Revolutions
By Chad R. Fulwider
This article surveys the various movements toward social, national, and politica…
Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions
By Georges-Henri Soutou
Despite what some believe, there is still a lot to say and learn about the First…
Thematic
Willingly to War. Public Response to the Outbreak of War
By Jean-Jacques Becker
It may surprise us to learn that some sectors of the European public were in fav…
Thematic
Xenophobia
By Thomas Brodie
This article provides an overview of xenophobia during the First World War - nam…
Regional Thematic Articles
Regional Thematic
African Labour in Europe (Africa)
By Richard Fogarty
Between 1914 and 1918, between 150,000 and 200,000 Africans traveled to Europe t…
Regional Thematic
Civilian and Military Power (Australia)
By John Connor
Civilians in the Australian government contended with two types of military powe…
Regional Thematic
Civilian and Military Power (Austria-Hungary)
By Hermann Kuprian, Nicole-Melanie Goll
The relationship between civilian and military power in Austria-Hungary during t…
Regional Thematic
Civilian and Military Power (Belgium)
By Jan Naert
At the outbreak of the First World War, the relationship between the civil and m…
Regional Thematic
Civilian and Military Power (China)
By Lin-Chun Wu
From 1916 to 1928, the Republic China was divided among military cliques in the …
Regional Thematic
Civilian and Military Power (France)
By Michaël Bourlet
The responsibilities of politicians and military leaders are defined in times of…
Regional Thematic
Civilian and Military Power (Germany)
By Lukas Grawe
Armed conflicts provide fertile ground for the military’s ambitions to gain auth…
Regional Thematic
Civilian and Military Power (Great Britain and Ireland)
By Matthew Johnson
By the early 20th century the United Kingdom had a well-established tradition of…
Regional Thematic
Civilian and Military Power (Italy)
By Marco Mondini
In Italy, as in the other European states involved in the First World War, the o…
Regional Thematic
Civilian and Military Power (Japan)
By Frederick R. Dickinson
Like the Sino- and Russo-Japanese Wars, the First World War gave an enormous boo…
Regional Thematic
Civilian and Military Power (Ottoman Empire)
By Nazan Maksudyan
The First World War required the most comprehensive mobilization of men and reso…
Regional Thematic
Civilian and Military Power (South East Europe)
By John Paul Newman
In pre-war South East Europe, both civilian and military powers focused on the c…
Regional Thematic
Civilian and Military Power (USA)
By Nancy Gentile Ford
During World War I, an unprecedented civil-military relationship developed among…
Regional Thematic
Civil-Military Relations during World War I (Portugal)
By Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses
Portugal went to war in March 1916 with a government and an army that did not si…
Regional Thematic
Civil-Military Relations during World War I (Russian Empire)
By Olga Porshneva
This article examines the mechanisms, results, and characteristics of the nation…
Regional Thematic
Colonial Society (Indochina)
By Pierre Brocheux
When World War I broke out, the military conquest of the countries located betwe…
Regional Thematic
Colonial State Power and Politics (Africa)
By Michael Pesek
When the First World War came to Africa, European colonial rule was scarcely est…
Regional Thematic
Colonial Warfare and Occupation (Africa)
By Brian Digre
In 1914, Allied leaders plunged Africans into a conflict that was not their own.…
Regional Thematic
Colonies (Italy)
By Simona Berhe
The Italian colonies, with the partial exception of Libya, played only a seconda…
Regional Thematic
Diplomacy (Portugal)
By Pedro Aires Oliveira
The diplomacy of Portugal’s participation in the Great War was largely determine…
Regional Thematic
Domestic Politics and Neutrality (Denmark)
By Niels Finn Christiansen
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During World War One, Denmark managed to remain neutral. But, as the country was…
Regional Thematic
Domestic Politics and Neutrality (Norway)
By Eirik Brazier
The article focuses on how Norway’s neutrality during the First World War impact…
Regional Thematic
Domestic Politics and Neutrality (Spain)
By Maximiliano Fuentes Codera
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Despite the official neutrality maintained by Spain throughout the First World W…
Regional Thematic
Domestic Politics and Neutrality (Sweden)
By Anne Hedén
This article focuses on how the Swedish neutrality policy during the First World…
Regional Thematic
Domestic Politics and Neutrality (Switzerland)
By Carlo Moos
Neutrality is a fundamental problem in modern Swiss history and played a pivotal…
Regional Thematic
Domestic Politics and Neutrality (The Netherlands)
By Pauline Onderwater
When the First World War broke out, the Netherlands’ most important political pa…
Regional Thematic
Dominions’ Military Relationship to Great Britain 1902-1914 (British Dominions)
By Steve Marti
The dominions of Australia, Canada, Newfoundland, New Zealand, and South Africa …
Regional Thematic
Easter Rising (Great Britain and Ireland)
By Fearghal McGarry
Although a military failure, the 1916 rebellion transformed Ireland by destroyin…
Regional Thematic
Foreign Policy and Business Diplomacy (Denmark)
By Steen Andersen
The Danish government succeeded in maintaining neutrality and thus sparing the c…
Regional Thematic
Foreign Policy (Norway)
By Roald Berg
Norway was a "neutral ally" of Great Britain during the war because of the immen…
Regional Thematic
Foreign Policy (Spain)
By José Antonio Montero Jiménez
Throughout the Great War, successive Spanish governments tried to advance tradit…
Regional Thematic
Foreign Policy (Sweden)
By Gunnar Åselius
Until 1917, Swedish neutrality was characterized by a certain “benevolence” towa…
Regional Thematic
Foreign Policy (The Netherlands)
By Maartje Abbenhuis
The Kingdom of the Netherlands upheld a foreign policy of strict neutrality duri…
Regional Thematic
French Canada and the War (Canada)
By Mélanie Morin-Pelletier
In 1917, with tens of thousands of Canadian soldiers killed and wounded, the end…
Regional Thematic
German versus US Intelligence in Latin America
By Jamie Bisher
Latin America figured prominently in Germany’s global war strategy, though after…
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Australia)
By John Connor
The Commonwealth of Australia, a self-governing Dominion of the British Empire, …
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Austria)
By John W. Boyer
The closing of the parliament in Vienna in spring 1914 led to the consolidation …
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Belgium)
By Emmanuel Gerard
The First World War changed the balance of power in Belgium. From a strongly pol…
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Canada)
By David MacKenzie
This article examines the shifting nature of Canadian federal politics during th…
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (China)
By Lin-Chun Wu
China’s attempt to participate in the European war was complicated by domestic t…
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (France)
By Fabienne Bock
Despite its weaknesses, the French parliamentary republic survived the First Wor…
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Germany)
By Torsten Oppelland
At the beginning of World War I, Germany was a constitutional monarchy in which …
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Great Britain and Ireland)
By Matthew Johnson
The Great War marked a period of profound upheaval in British politics. The old …
Regional Thematic
Governments-Parliaments and Parties (Hungary)
By András Joó
Political life in the Hungarian part of the Dual Monarchy (particularly the cons…
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Italy)
By Elena Papadia
During the period of neutrality, Italian public opinion was divided into two cam…
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Japan)
By Frederick R. Dickinson
Despite over 7,000 miles of separation from the Western Front, Imperial Japan un…
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties, Labour, Labour Movements and Strikes (Union of South Africa)
By Wessel Pretorius Visser
In South Africa the period between 1914 and 1918 was one of intense political an…
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (New Zealand)
By Jim McAloon
New Zealand’s wartime parliament was dominated by a coalition between the two ma…
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Ottoman Empire/Middle East)
By Feroz Ahmad
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After the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) seized power in January 1913, it…
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties; Political Movements and Protostate Formation (East Central Europe)
By Klaus Richter, Piotr Szlanta
Political movements in Poland and the Baltics were heavily influenced by the Ger…
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Portugal)
By Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses
Founded in October 1910, the Portuguese Republic was soon mired in turmoil. The …
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Russian Empire)
By Fedor Aleksandrovich Gaida
At the beginning of World War I, Russian political parties found themselves in d…
Regional Thematic
Governments, Parliaments and Parties (USA)
By Ross Kennedy
This essay analyzes domestic politics in the United States during World War I, f…
Regional Thematic
International Committee of the Red Cross
By Daniel Palmieri, Irène Herrmann
This article seeks to analyze how the International Committee of the Red Cross (…
Regional Thematic
International Responses to the Russian Civil War (Russian Empire)
By Evan Mawdsley
The Russian Civil War of 1917-20 was closely related to the World War in terms o…
Regional Thematic
Military and Strategy (Spain)
By Ángel Alcalde
This article examines the history of the Spanish army during the First World War…
Regional Thematic
Occupation after the War (Belgium and France)
By Anne Godfroid
The Armistice agreement foresaw the occupation of the left bank of the Rhine, th…
Regional Thematic
Occupation during and after the War (Austria-Hungary)
By Wolfram Dornik
While on the Western Front there were only limited territorial movements, the Ea…
Regional Thematic
Occupation during and after the War (China)
By Lukas K. Danner
This article surveys the occupation of the formerly German-leased territory arou…
Regional Thematic
Occupation during and after the War (East Central Europe)
By Stephan Lehnstaedt
This article examines the politics of the German (Generalgouvernement Warschau) …
Regional Thematic
Occupation during and after the War (Germany)
By Joachim Schröder, Alexander Watson
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This article studies Germany’s experiences of occupation during and immediately …
Regional Thematic
Occupation during and after the War (Italy)
By Matteo Ermacora
During and after the First World War, Italy experienced different kinds of occup…
Regional Thematic
Occupation during and after the War (Middle East)
By Roberto Mazza
The occupation of the Arab lands of the Ottoman Empire was essentially the by-pr…
Regional Thematic
Occupation during and after the War (Ottoman Empire)
By Nur Bilge Criss
Memories of occupation by foreign forces are not usually articulated except when…
Regional Thematic
Occupation during and after the War (Russian Empire)
By Wolfram Dornik
Occupation played a crucial role in Eastern Europe between 1914 and 1921: the hi…
Regional Thematic
Occupation during and after the War (South East Europe)
By Milan Ristović
The occupation of South East Europe 1915-1918 had a complex structure reflecting…
Regional Thematic
Occupation during the War (Belgium and France)
By Larissa Wegner
This article examines the German occupation of Belgium and Northern France in 19…
Regional Thematic
Religion (Portugal)
By Maria Lúcia de Brito Moura
World War One represented a turning point in the relationship between churches a…
Regional Thematic
Religion (USA)
By Jonathan H. Ebel
This article charts the contours of the Great War as an American religious exper…
Regional Thematic
Religious Missionaries and the Colonial State (Indochina)
By Charles Keith
The Great War helped to ease the Church-state tensions that had shaped French po…
Regional Thematic
Resistance and Rebellions (Africa)
By Michelle Moyd
Africans across the continent resisted colonial demands and took up arms against…
Regional Thematic
Revolutionary Networks (India)
By Gajendra Singh
Revolutionary movements in India haunted the imagination of post-war British off…
Regional Thematic
Revolutions and Rebellions: Arab Revolt (Ottoman Empire/Middle East)
By Alia El Bakri
This article provides an overview of the 1916-1918 Arab Revolt against the Ottom…
Regional Thematic
Revolutions and Rebellions: Van Resistance as Rebellion (Ottoman Empire/Middle East)
By Yasar Tolga Cora
Violent clashes took place between the Ottoman troops and the Armenian guerilla …
Regional Thematic
Revolutions (Austria-Hungary)
By Hannes Leidinger
The following pages - focusing on the collapse of the Habsburg Empire and the in…
Regional Thematic
Revolutions (East Central Europe)
By Paweł Brudek
This article discusses the influence the Russian Revolution had on countries in …
Regional Thematic
Revolutions (Germany)
By Alexander Gallus
This article focuses on the upheaval between 1917 and 1923. These years were mar…
Regional Thematic
Revolutions (Portugal)
By Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses
Portugal’s participation in the First World War, never consensual, was marked by…
Regional Thematic
Revolutions (Russian Empire)
By Christopher Read
The Russian Revolution was one of the most influential events to emerge from the…
Regional Thematic
Teskilat-i Mahsusa (Ottoman Empire)
By Odile Moreau
Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa (TM), or Special Organization, was a secret paramilitary inte…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and Peace Discussions (USA)
By John Milton Cooper
From the outbreak of World War I, Woodrow Wilson pursued two goals: a non-puniti…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Africa)
By Brian Digre
The First World War led to a renewed imperialist scramble for territory in Afric…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Australia)
By Joan Beaumont
Although Britain declared war on the Dominions’ behalf, Australia had its own wa…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Austria-Hungary)
By Samuel R. Williamson, Jr.
In July 1914 the Habsburg monarchy went to war with Serbia declaring it sought n…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Belgium)
By Hubert van Tuyll
Belgium’s war aims were a direct consequence of the way in which the country was…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (China)
By Lukas K. Danner
This article discusses China’s war aims during the First World War, as well as t…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (East Central Europe)
By Jens Boysen
Already in autumn 1914, East Central Europe became a main theatre of operational…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (France)
By Stéphane Tison
On 4 August 1914, in his first speech after the declaration of war, Raymond Poin…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Germany)
By Nils Löffelbein
On 1 August 1914, the government of the German Reich declared war on Russia. Dir…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Great Britain and Ireland)
By Brock Millman
When Britain entered the First World War its war aims were simple: to restore Be…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Japan)
By Rustin Gates
This article discusses Japan’s war aims during the First World War, as well as t…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Ottoman Empire)
By Feroze Yasamee
The Ottoman Empire fought the First World War for the sake of survival in the sh…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Portugal)
By Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses
Portugal’s wartime governments never formulated a concrete set of war aims. The …
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Russian Empire)
By David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye
Russia reluctantly entered the Great War to preserve its status as a great power…
Regional Thematic
War Aims and War Aims Discussions (South East Europe)
By Mile Bjelajac
This article offers a survey of the main currents in South East Europe in regard…
Encyclopedic Entries
Entry
ABC Pact (Alliance between Argentina, Brazil and Chile)
By Hélène Veber
On 25 May 1915, Argentina’s, Brazil’s and Chile’s ministers of foreign affairs s…
Entry
Activisme
By Antoon Vrints
A minority of the adherents of the Flemish movement were willing to collaborate …
Entry
Adler, Victor
By Jakub Beneš
Until his death in 1918, Victor Adler was the most prominent Austrian socialist …
Entry
Ador, Gustave
By Irène Herrmann
Ador was the third president of the International Committee of the Red Cross (IC…
Entry
Albert I, King of the Belgians
By Jan Velaers
Albert I, the third king of the Belgians, played a leading role as supreme comma…
Entry
Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg
By Wolfgang Mährle
Albrecht Duke of Württemberg was the commander-in-chief of the German 4th Army f…
Entry
al-Da’uq, Umar
By Malek Sharif
Umar al-Da’uq was a merchant and notable of Beirut in the late Ottoman period. H…
Entry
Alexandra, Empress, consort of Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia
By Fedor Aleksandrovich Gaida
Born Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, Aleksandra Fedorovna married the future Russia…
Entry
Alfonso XIII, King of Spain
By Carolina García Sanz
Alfonso XIII was a controversial Spanish king during the first decades of the 20…
Entry
Anarchism (Latin America)
By Edilene Toledo, Luigi Biondi
The diffusion of anarchism in Latin America, which began in the 1870s, was boost…
Entry
Arab Bureau
By Samir Seikaly
A short lived agency, the Arab Bureau (1916-1920), was ostensibly established to…
Entry
Arab Supporters of the Belligerent Countries
By M. Talha Çiçek
There were a number of Arab intellectuals who actively cooperated with the Enten…
Entry
Armenia
By Tigran Martirosyan
Armenians contributed greatly to the Allied victories in Europe and Western Asia…
Entry
Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF)
By Toygun Altintas
With branches in the Ottoman Empire, Russia, and Iran, the Armenian Revolutionar…
Entry
Arnold J. Toynbee
By Laura Di Fiore
During World War I, Arnold J. Toynbee, as a member of the Political Intelligence…
Entry
Arslān, Shakīb, Amīr
By Makram Rabah
Shakib Arslan was a prominent Arab politician, polemicist, and man of letters. A…
Entry
Asquith, Herbert Henry
By Garry Tregidga
Asquith was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at the outbreak of war. He form…
Entry
Azerbaijan
By Altay Goyushov
The Republic of Azerbaijan is a majority Turkic and secular Muslim nation in the…
Entry
Azmi, Jemal
By Nikos Sigalas
Cemal Azmi was an Ottoman official who served during the Great War as governor (…
Entry
Baker, Newton D.
By Jessica L. Adler
A lawyer, Progressive, and pacifist, Newton Baker was U.S. Secretary of War duri…
Entry
Balfour, Arthur James Balfour, Earl of
By Samir Seikaly
Arthur James Balfour was a British Conservative politician and statesman who ser…
Entry
Balfour Declaration
By Maryanne A. Rhett
The Balfour Declaration, the document that set the stage for establishing the st…
Entry
Ballhausplatz
By William D. Godsey
The Imperial and Royal Ministry of the Imperial and Royal House and of Foreign A…
Entry
Battisti, Cesare
By Mirko Saltori
Cesare Battisti was the leader of the socialist party of the Italian Tirol (Tren…
Entry
Batum, Conference and Treaties of
By Alexander E. Balistreri
The Batum Conference (May 1918) and treaties ended the state of war between the …
Entry
Bauer, Max
By Mahon Murphy
Max Bauer was a German artillery expert and a key suborndinate in the German Sup…
Entry
Bauer, Otto
By Jakub Beneš
Otto Bauer was a leading Austro-Marxist and socialist politician who served duri…
Entry
Bäumer, Gertrud
By Angelika Schaser
Gertrud Bäumer was one of the most well known leaders of the German women’s move…
Entry
Beerenbrouck, Charles Ruijs de
By Paul Moeyes
Ruijs de Beerenbrouck was a Dutch Prime Minster who successfully dealt with the …
Entry
Bell, Gertrude
By Laith Shakir
Gertrude Bell’s earlier travels and intellectual interests, alongside her wartim…
Entry
Beneš, Edvard
By René Küpper
Edvard Beneš was a Czech politician, diplomat, and close collaborator of Tomáš G…
Entry
Berchtold, Leopold Graf
By Samuel R. Williamson, Jr.
Graf Leopold Berchtold, Habsburg foreign minister from 1912 to 1915, was confron…
Entry
Berlin Indian Independence Committee
By Heike Liebau
During the First World War, Berlin became an organisational hub for Indian natio…
Entry
Bernstorff, Johann Heinrich, Graf von
By Paul Hoser
Count Bernstorff was German ambassador to the United States from 1908 to 1917. H…
Entry
Beseler, Hans von
By Jesse Kauffman
Hans Hartwig von Beseler was a German general and military engineer who oversaw …
Entry
Bethmann Hollweg, Theobald von
By Katharine Anne Lerman
Bethmann was a career civil servant who became Imperial Germany’s fifth Reich Ch…
Entry
Bettignies, Louise Marie Jeanne Henriette de
By Chantal Antier
Louise de Bettignies created an intelligence network for the British in occupied…
Entry
Bissing, Moritz Ferdinand Freiherr von
By Christoph Roolf, Thomas L. Gertzen
Moritz von Bissing was born on 30 January 1844, in Bellmannsdorf, Silesia, then …
Entry
Black Hand
By John Paul Newman
This article looks at the Black Hand from its origins to the demise of its leade…
Entry
Bliss, Howard S.
By Tylor Brand
Howard Sweetser Bliss was the President of the Syrian Protestant College (SPC) d…
Entry
Bloch, Jan Gotlib
By Agnieszka Janiak-Jasińska
Jan Bloch was an entrepreneur, social activist and pacifist. At the end of his l…
Entry
Bonar Law, Andrew
By Stuart Ball
Bonar Law was leader of the Conservative Party in Britain during the war. He ent…
Entry
Borders (The Netherlands)
By Maartje Abbenhuis
The borders of the Netherlands were an important site of war experience for the …
Entry
Borms, August
By Christine Van Everbroeck
As a Flemish nationalist, August Borms actively collaborated with the Germans du…
Entry
Boselli, Paolo
By Vanda Wilcox
After a long parliamentary career, Paolo Boselli became Italy’s 22nd prime minis…
Entry
Bosnian Crisis
By Marc Stefan Peters
In the narrow sense, the so-called “Bosnian Crisis” (or “Annexation Crisis”) of …
Entry
Brás, Venceslau
By Rafael Pinheiro de Araujo
Venceslau Brás was president of Brazil between 1914 and 1918. On 26 October 1917…
Entry
Brătianu, Ion I.C.
By Daniel Cain
Liberal Prime Minister Ionel Brătianu led the charge to transform Romania's fore…
Entry
Brazil
By Frederik Schulze
Brazil was the only South American country that participated actively in the Fir…
Entry
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of
By Susanne Schattenberg
At Brest-Litovsk, from 22 December 1917 to 10 February 1918 (Julian calendar: 9 …
Entry
Brockdorff-Rantzau, Ulrich Carl Christian, Graf
By Christiane Scheidemann
As an imperial diplomat, first Foreign Minister of the Weimar Republic, leader o…
Entry
Broqueville, Charles Marie Pierre Albert, Baron de
By Laurence van Ypersele
Charles de Broqueville, chief of the Belgian government during the First World W…
Entry
Brussels
By Chantal Kesteloot
The Belgian capital was spared the anguish of combat, but the city suffered four…
Entry
Bryan, William Jennings
By Luke Schleif
Williams Jennings Bryan was a powerful Democratic politician, from his emergence…
Entry
Bülow, Bernhard, Fürst von
By Norman Domeier
During his career as a diplomat and courtier (knighted count in 1899 and prince …
Entry
Burián von Rajecz, István, Graf
By Marvin Benjamin Fried
István Burián was a leading Austro-Hungarian career diplomat and politician, ris…
Entry
Carnegie, Lancelot
By Bruno J. Navarro
Minister plenipotentiary for England in Lisbon, there was consensus about Lancel…
Entry
Carol I, King of Romania
By Daniel Cain
For three decades Romania’s foreign policy depended almost entirely upon King Ca…
Entry
Casement, Roger, Sir
By Séamas Ó'Síocháin
Following a career as British consul and humanitarian investigator, Roger Caseme…
Entry
Cavid Bey, Mehmed
By James Ryan
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Mehmed Cavid Bey was born in Thessaloniki to a Sabbatean (dönme) family in eithe…
Entry
Cemal Paşa, Ahmed
By Hasan Kayalı
Cemal Paşa belonged to the top leadership of the Committee of Union and Progress…
Entry
Charles I, Emperor of Austria
By Robert Rill
In his youth, the archduke was introduced to the idea of federalism by Archduke …
Entry
Chattopadhyaya, Virendranath
By Heike Liebau
Virendranath Chattopadhyaya belonged to the transnational networks of Indian pol…
Entry
Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer
By Richard Toye
Churchill was Navy Minister during the early stages of the war but was widely cr…
Entry
Circassian Nationalism
By Pınar Üre
Circassian nationalism refers to national movements among Adyghe people, a North…
Entry
Citizenship (Great Britain)
By Nicoletta F. Gullace
World War I had a profound impact on concepts of citizenship. Not only did hosts…
Entry
Clam-Martinic, Heinrich, Graf
By Heiko Brendel
Count Heinrich Karl Clam-Martinic was a German-speaking Bohemian high aristocrat…
Entry
Clemenceau, Georges
By Vincent Laniol
During the war, Georges Clemenceau fought for a more efficient war effort and fo…
Entry
Collaboration (Belgium and France)
By James E. Connolly
Collaboration is often associated with the military occupations of the Second Wo…
Entry
Collins, Michael
By Frank Callanan
Michael Collins was a revolutionary leader who rose to become chairman of the Ir…
Entry
Concept of Mitteleuropa
By Maciej Górny
Friedrich Naumann’s Mitteleuropa (1915) was a liberal voice in the largely illib…
Entry
Conscientious Objectors
By Luke Schleif
During World War I, many conscription age-men sought exemptions from combat duty…
Entry
Constantine I, King of Greece
By Elli Lemonidou
King Constantine I, a brave army officer but rather controversial in his politic…
Entry
Constantinople Agreement
By Pınar Üre
The Constantinople Agreement, alternatively known as the Straits or Istanbul Agr…
Entry
Corfu Declaration
By Samuel Foster
The Corfu Declaration was a formal agreement between the government-in-exile of …
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Cort van der Linden, Pieter Wilhelm Adriaan
By Paul Moeyes
P.W.A. Cort van der Linden was the Dutch prime minister from 1913 to 1918. His c…
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Costa, Afonso
By Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses
Afonso Costa’s name is indelibly attached to Portuguese interventionism. He led …
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Creel, George
By John T. Broom
George Creel is most famous as Chairman of the Committee on Public Information (…
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Croce, Benedetto
By Adviye Damla Ünlü
Benedetto Croce is an important figure for both Italian intellectual life (throu…
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Czernin, Ottokar Graf
By Robert Rill
Ottokar Graf Czernin was an Austrian politician and the minister of foreign affa…
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Daniels, Josephus
By Daniel E. Worthington
Josephus Daniels was United States secretary of the Navy from 1913–1921. He demo…
Entry
Daszyński, Ignacy
By Andrzej Chojnowski
Ignacy Daszyński was one of the foremost figures on the Polish political scene i…
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Dayal, Har
By Sunit Singh
Har Dayal was one of the chief architects of a quixotically sketched blueprint t…
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Debs, Eugene V.
By Kyle Anthony
As a socialist, Eugene Debs unsuccessfully ran for president four times. He serv…
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Decree on Peace
By Siobhan Peeling
Following the Bolshevik seizure of power in October 1917, Lenin issued his Decre…
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Defence of the Realm Act (DORA)
By Gregory Hynes
The Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) afforded the British government extraordinar…
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Delesalle, Charles
By James E. Connolly
A local notable and mayor of Lille during the occupation, Charles Delesalle was …
Entry
De Valera, Éamon
By Michael Laffan
De Valera was a prominent figure in the Easter 1916 rebellion against British ru…
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Dmowski, Roman
By Michał Leśniewski
Roman Stanisław Dmowski was a Polish politician and most importantly the co-foun…
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Dual Power
By Siobhan Peeling
In February 1917 two centres of power emerged to replace the tsarist government:…
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Du Bois, W.E.B.
By Nicholas Michael Sambaluk
W.E.B. Du Bois, sociologist, historian, and socialist, promoted African American…
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Duma
By Siobhan Peeling
The Tsar reluctantly granted an elected legislative assembly, the State Duma, du…
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Ebert, Friedrich
By Bernd Braun
Friedrich Ebert became the most important leader of the SPD during the First Wor…
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Elisabeth of Bavaria, Queen of the Belgians
By Laurence van Ypersele
Queen Elisabeth was the third queen of the Belgians. Her attitude during the Fir…
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Empire
By Erez Manela
World War I was not simply a conflict among European states but a global war of …
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Enver Pasha, Ismail
By Feroz Ahmad
After leading the coup that brought the Committee of Union and Progress to power…
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Erzberger, Matthias
By Christopher Dowe
As a Member of Parliament 1917, Erzberger, the former annexationist, played an i…
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Ethiopia
By Jakob Zollmann
Before the war, Ethiopia had many diplomatic connections with European states an…
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Eyschen, Paul
By Denis Scuto
Paul Eyschen, prime minister of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg from 1888 to 1915,…
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Falkenhausen, Ludwig Alexander Friedrich August Philipp Freiherr von
By Sebastian Rojek
Ludwig Freiherr von Falkenhausen was a German General and military writer who se…
Entry
Faysal I, King of Iraq
By Tariq Tell
Faysal ibn Husayn commanded the Northern Army of the Arab Revolt and was raised …
Entry
Ferdinand I, Tsar of Bulgaria
By Stefan Marinov Minkov
Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria undoubtedly contributed to the modernization of the…
Entry
Ferry, Abel
By André Loez
Abel Ferry was a French politician and minister as well as an infantry combatant…
Entry
Flamenpolitik
By Antoon Vrints
The German Flamenpolitik during the First World War aimed to instrumentalise the…
Entry
Flemish Movement
By Christine Van Everbroeck
The First World War engendered a rift within the Flemish movement, with some wis…
Entry
Fourteen Points
By Chris Thomas
The Fourteen Points were U.S. President Woodrow Wilson’s post World War I bluepr…
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Francis Joseph I, Emperor of Austria
By Lothar Höbelt
Under the terms of the 1867 constitution, Francis Joseph retained his prerogativ…
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Frank, Ludwig
By Sarah Panter
Ludwig Frank was a member of the Reichstag for the Social Democratic Party. When…
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Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria-Este
By Paul Miller
This biographical overview of Archduke Franz Ferdinand examines the evolution of…
Entry
Freedom of the Seas
By James Leroy Young, Jr.
“Freedom of the seas” was the early 20th century idea that the world’s oceans se…
Entry
Gabrys, Juozas
By Česlovas Laurinavičius
Juozas Gabrys was one of the major advocates of Lithuanian political aspirations…
Entry
Gallieni, Joseph-Simon
By Julie d'Andurain
General Joseph-Simon Gallieni was a colonial officer who became the Governor of …
Entry
Garcez, Arnaldo
By Carlos Silveira
Arnaldo Garcez was the only official photographer of the Portuguese army on the …
Entry
Garfield, Harry Augustus
By Kenna Lang Archer
Harry Garfield worked in a number of civic positions during his life. When the U…
Entry
Garrison, Lindley M.
By Edward Salo
Lindley Garrison was a prominent lawyer and politician from New Jersey who rose …
Entry
Geddes, Eric Campbell, Sir
By Christopher Phillips
Eric Geddes was the most prominent example of Britain’s deployment of businessme…
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Generalgouvernement Belgien
By Christoph Roolf
After the German Army had occupied wide areas of Belgium, the “Imperial Governme…
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Generalgouvernement Warschau
By Stephan Lehnstaedt
In 1915, Germany set up the “Generalgouvernement Warschau”, or General Governora…
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General Headquarters (Germany)
By Markus Pöhlmann
The Große Hauptquartier (Great Headquarters or GHQ) was the strategic command ce…
Entry
George V, King of Great Britain
By David Freeman
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King George V served as a figurehead for the nations of the British Empire throu…
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Georgia
By Stephen F. Jones
World War One was a catalyst for Georgian independence, which was declared on 26…
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German Fatherland Party
By Björn Hofmeister
The German Fatherland Party (1917-1918/1919) aspired to mobilize members of the …
Entry
German Immigrants (Brazil)
By Frederik Schulze
German-speaking elites in Brazil were traditionally in contact with German colon…
Entry
Germany's Blank Cheque to Austria-Hungary
By William Mulligan
Germany’s offer of unconditional support to its Austro-Hungarian ally in July 19…
Entry
Ghadar Conspiracy
By Sunit Singh
Although sometimes characterized as a quixotically hatched scheme to overthrow B…
Entry
Giolitti, Giovanni
By Spencer Di Scala
Giovanni Giolitti favored the increased liberalization of Italy, which encourage…
Entry
Goltz, Colmar Freiherr von der
By Gerhard Grüßhaber
Colmar von der Goltz was one of pre-war Germany’s most outstanding and controver…
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Göring, Hermann
By Jan-Philipp Pomplun
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Hermann Göring was a highly decorated and well-known fighter pilot of the First …
Entry
Gregory, Thomas Watt
By Gregory W. Ball
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Thomas Watt Gregory served as Attorney General of the United States during World…
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Grey, Sir Edward
By Detlev Mares
Grey was the longest-serving British foreign secretary of the 20th century. His …
Entry
Grigorovich, Ivan Konstantinovich
By Siobhan Peeling
Grigorovich was Navy Minister between 1911 and 1917. He sought cooperation with …
Entry
Grimm, Robert
By Adrian Zimmermann
Robert Grimm was the most powerful socialist politician in Switzerland throughou…
Entry
Groener, Wilhelm
By Peter Lieb
As head of the Railway Section at the General Staff, Groener was responsible for…
Entry
Gurko, Vasiliĭ Iosifovich
By Sofya Anisimova
General Vassillii Iosifovich Gurko was a Russian military commander during the F…
Entry
Haase, Hugo
By Tara Windsor
Hugo Haase was a prominent social democrat in the Kaiserreich, who opposed Germa…
Entry
Hakkı, İsmail Bey
By Malek Sharif
İsmail Hakkı was an experienced civil servant. He collected and published detail…
Entry
Haldane, Richard Burdon
By Bill Mitchinson
Liberal Secretary of State for War 1905-1912. Haldane’s reforms of the British R…
Entry
Hankey, Maurice Pascal Alers Hankey, Baron
By William Philpott
Maurice Hankey was responsible for adapting the British government’s administrat…
Entry
Hertling, Georg, Graf von
By Paul Hoser
Georg von Hertling was the chancellor of Germany from 1 November 1917 to 3 Octob…
Entry
Hervé, Gustave
By Elisa Marcobelli
Gustave Hervé’s dates of birth and death (1871-1944) correspond broadly to those…
Entry
Hindenburg, Paul von
By Anna von der Goltz
Paul von Hindenburg shot to fame after the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914. …
Entry
Hitler, Adolf
By Thomas Weber
After the First World War, Hitler created a mythical account of his war years fo…
Entry
Hồ Chí Minh
By Pierre Brocheux
The Great War had a decisive influence on Hồ Chí Minh. In France, his acquaintan…
Entry
Holmes, Oliver Wendell
By Kenna Lang Archer
After working first as a lawyer and legal scholar, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. ac…
Entry
Hoover, Herbert
By Robert Shafer
Herbert Hoover obtained political prominence during World War I through his role…
Entry
Horthy, Miklós
By Catherine Horel
Horthy was a naval officer of Austria-Hungary. During the First World War he was…
Entry
House, Edward Mandell
By Gates Brown
Edward House was an advisor to President Woodrow Wilson. He aided Wilson in dipl…
Entry
Hoyek, Elias
By Youssef Mouawad
Elias Hoyek was Patriarch of Antioch for the Maronites. He is considered to be o…
Entry
Husayn ibn Ali, King of Hejaz
By Tariq Tell
Husayn ibn Ali launched the Arab Revolt in alliance with Great Britain. His rela…
Entry
Ḥusayn Kāmil, Sultan of Egypt
By Kyle J. Anderson
Husayn Kamil was the first sultan of Egypt after the declaration of the British …
Entry
Husayn-McMahon Correspondence
By Tariq Tell
The Husayn-McMahon Correspondence mapped out with studied ambiguity the terms of…
Entry
Interventionism (Italy)
By Stéfanie Prezioso
Italy entered the First World War in May 1915, roughly ten months after it began…
Entry
Ionescu, Dumitru
By Daniel Cain
A Romanian politician, Dumitru Ionescu, commonly known as Take Ionescu, was cons…
Entry
Irish Home Rule
By Conor Mulvagh
The campaign for Irish Home Rule lasted from 1870 until 1914. When Home Rule bec…
Entry
Italian Irredentism
By Matthew Stibbe
This article examines the history of Italian irredentism before 1915; and its pl…
Entry
Jabotinsky, Vladimir
By Arie M. Dubnov, Brian Horowitz
Russian-Jewish author, playwright, journalist, orator, and political activist; c…
Entry
Jagow, Gottlieb von
By Florian Altenhöner
Gottlieb von Jagow was a German diplomat. He served as the German Foreign Secret…
Entry
Jaurès, Jean
By Rémy Cazals
A philosopher, historian, and journalist (creator of L’Humanité), Jean Jaurès de…
Entry
Jeglič, Anton
By Pavlina Bobic
Bishop Jeglič was one of the most prominent Slovenian Church figures in the era …
Entry
Judenzählung (Jewish Census)
By Michael Geheran
In October 1916, the Prussian War Ministry conducted the Judenzählung, also refe…
Entry
July Crisis 1917 (Russian Empire)
By Siobhan Peeling
In July 1917, economic chaos and unpopular preparations for military action prov…
Entry
Karadjordjević, Peter I.
By Dalibor Denda
Peter I Karadjordjević was King of Serbia from 1903 to 1918, and King of Serbs, …
Entry
Kara Kemal
By Burak Aslanmirza
Ahmed Kemal was one of the leading members of the Committee of Union and Progres…
Entry
Kemal, Mustafa (Atatürk)
By Erik-Jan Zürcher
Mustafa Kemal Pasha gained fame during World War I both as a successful commande…
Entry
Kerenskii, Aleksandr Fedorovich
By Siobhan Peeling
Aleksandr Kerenskii was Minister of War in Russia’s Provisional Government from …
Entry
Khaki Election 1918
By Luke Blaxill
The "khaki" general election of 1918 was held in Great Britain almost immediatel…
Entry
King's African Rifles
By Charles G. Thomas
The King’s African Rifles (KAR) were the British colonial military within East A…
Entry
Kolchak, Aleksandr Vasil'evich
By Evgenii Vladimirovich Volkov
Aleksandr Vasil'evich Kolchak was a Russian admiral and political figure. He par…
Entry
Konoe, Fumimaro
By Gerhard Krebs
Prince Fumimaro Konoe was a pivotal figure in Japanese history during the first …
Entry
Koo, V. K. Wellington
By Stephen G. Craft
During World War I, V. K. Wellington Koo worked in the Chinese foreign ministry …
Entry
Kun, Béla
By Boldizsár Vörös
Béla Kun was a Hungarian communist politician. He began his career as a social d…
Entry
La Dame Blanche
By Pierre Decock
La Dame Blanche was an intelligence network created in Belgium in 1916. It was e…
Entry
La Fontaine, Henri
By Jacques Gillen
Although he was a Nobel Prize winner, the name of Henri La Fontaine has somewhat…
Entry
Laidoner, Johan
By Ago Pajur
Johan Laidoner, Estonian general and statesman, started his career in the Russia…
Entry
Lansing, Robert
By Nicholas J. Steneck
Robert Lansing served as U.S. Secretary of State from June 1915 until February 1…
Entry
Lawrence, Thomas Edward
By Tariq Tell
T.E. Lawrence’s exploits during the Arab Revolt have acquired mythical status, m…
Entry
Leipzig War Crimes Trials
By Gerd Hankel
In 1921 and 1922 the highest German court, the Reichsgericht in Leipzig, under p…
Entry
Lenin, Vladimir Il’ich
By Benno Ennker
Vladimir Il’ich Lenin was the founder and leader of the Bolshevik Party and of t…
Entry
Liebknecht, Karl Paul August Friedrich
By Mark Jones
Karl Liebknecht was the leading German socialist opponent of the First World War…
Entry
Lloyd George, David
By Ian Packer
Lloyd George was a leading Liberal politician before World War I, who went on to…
Entry
Lodge, Henry Cabot
By Jennifer Madeline Zoebelein
Henry Cabot Lodge was a Republican senator from Massachusetts. Close friend to T…
Entry
London, Treaty of (1915)
By Stefano Marcuzzi
The Treaty of London was a secret agreement signed by Italy, Great Britain, Fran…
Entry
Loucheur, Louis
By Daniel Mollenhauer
Louis Loucheur was a French industrialist and politician. From December 1916 unt…
Entry
Ludendorff, Erich
By Roger Chickering
Erich Ludendorff was the effective commander of the German armed forces during t…
Entry
Luxburg Affair
By Stefan Rinke
Named after the German chargé d’affaires in Buenos Aires, Count Karl von Luxburg…
Entry
Luxemburg, Rosa
By Ingrid Sharp
A Socialist and a vocal critic of the German Social Democratic Party’s (SPD) war…
Entry
MacDonald, James Ramsay
By David Howell
Ramsay MacDonald opposed British entry into the European conflict in 1914. Altho…
Entry
Macedonia and the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization
By Tetsuya Sahara
Macedonia was one of the main battlefields on the Balkan Front during World War …
Entry
Machado, Bernardino
By Sérgio Neto
Bernardino Machado was the prime minister of Portugal during the July Crisis of …
Entry
Makhno, Nestor Ivanovich
By Christopher Gilley
Nestor Makhno was a commander of peasant insurgents who fought the Bolsheviks, W…
Entry
Malvy, Louis-Jean
By Jean-Yves Le Naour
French Interior Minister when the war was declared, Louis Malvy embodied the Uni…
Entry
Mannerheim, Carl Gustaf Emil
By Jussi Jalonen
A Finnish aristocrat, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim served as cavalry commander in…
Entry
Marie Adelheid, Grand-Duchess of Luxembourg
By Josiane Weber
Marie Adelheid reigned from 1912 to 1919 as the Grand-Duchess of Luxembourg. Bec…
Entry
Marinegebiet
By Sophie De Schaepdrijver
The Marinegebiet on the Belgian coast was the Imperial German Navy’s base for at…
Entry
Martial Law
By Steven R. Welch
Martial law refers to the exercise of governmental power over the civilian popul…
Entry
Martial Races, Theory of
By Heike Liebau
The notion of “martial races” was formally developed and codified in the wake of…
Entry
Martyrs/Separatists, Syrian and Lebanese
By M. Talha Çiçek
The terms "martyrs" and "separatists" refer to the decentralist Arabists of Syri…
Entry
Masaryk, Tomáš Garrigue
By René Küpper
Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk was a Czech politician who started the Czechoslovak indep…
Entry
Mata Hari
By Marianne Walle
Mata Hari was a famous Dutch female dancer, who spied in France for the German i…
Entry
Matos, Norton de
By Sérgio Neto
Norton de Matos was minister of war during the first two years of Portuguese par…
Entry
Max, Adolphe
By Laurence van Ypersele
Adolphe Max, the mayor of Brussels, was known for his peaceful resistance agains…
Entry
Maximilian, Prince of Baden
By Karina Urbach
For many years Prince Maximilian of Baden was portrayed as a positive figure in …
Entry
McAdoo, William Gibbs
By Jon Huibregtse
William G. McAdoo was an American politician and businessman. During World War I…
Entry
Metaxas, Ioannis
By Elli Lemonidou
Ioannis Metaxas was a conservative army officer and politician, who influenced d…
Entry
Mexican Revolution
By Stephan Scheuzger
It was the complex and far-reaching transformation of the Mexican Revolution rat…
Entry
Michaelis, Georg
By Bert Becker
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Georg Michaelis is usually portrayed as the politically failed chancellor of 191…
Entry
Micronesia
By Niko Tillmann, Yuko Maezawa
Japanese interest in expansion into the South Pacific began in the 1870s. World …
Entry
Mili︠u︡kov, Pavel Nikolaevich
By Fedor Aleksandrovich Gaida
One of the founders and leaders of the Constitutional Democratic Party, Pavel Ni…
Entry
Millerand, Alexandre
By Daniel Mollenhauer
Between 1890 and 1925, Alexandre Millerand was one of France’s leading politicia…
Entry
Morel, Edmund Dene
By Christy Jo Snider
E. D. Morel was one of the earliest critics of the secret diplomacy and alliance…
Entry
Morgenthau, Henry, Sr.
By Harold Allen Skinner Jr.
Naturalized American lawyer, real estate investor, and Jewish activist, Henry Mo…
Entry
Moroccan Crises 1905-1911
By Jean-Marc Delaunay
The two Moroccan crises represent the product of “rapacious joint imperialism.” …
Entry
Movement of National Defence (Greece)
By Loukianos Hassiotis
The Movement of National Defence was an organisation of Venizelist army officers…
Entry
Müller, Lauro
By Karl Schurster
Lauro Müller was the Brazilian minister of foreign affairs between 1912 and 1917…
Entry
Mussolini, Benito
By Brian R. Sullivan
Italian Socialist Benito Mussolini envisioned war as the prerequisite for revolu…
Entry
Naumann, Friedrich
By Jürgen Frölich
Friedrich Naumann was a key figure in German liberalism in the late Kaiserreich,…
Entry
Naval Race between Germany and Great Britain, 1898-1912
By Dirk Bönker
The Anglo-German naval race was the most spectacular strand of the general marit…
Entry
Neuilly-sur-Seine, Treaty of
By Stefan Marinov Minkov
The Treaty of Neuilly was signed on 27 November 1919 between Bulgaria and the Al…
Entry
Neutrality
By Samuël Kruizinga
During the 19th century, neutrality evolved into a set of legal and political to…
Entry
Nicaragua
By Dennis Arias Mora
Nicaragua’s experience during the First World War was influenced by the geopolit…
Entry
Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia
By Siobhan Peeling
Nicholas II ruled Russia from 1894 and was commander of the army from September …
Entry
Nikolaĭ Nikolaevich, Grand Duke of Russia
By Siobhan Peeling
Nikolai Nikolaevich, a senior Russian officer and close relative of Tsar Nichola…
Entry
Nitti, Francesco Saverio
By Pierluigi Pironti
Francesco Nitti was minister of the Treasury in the Orlando Cabinet after the de…
Entry
Noske, Gustav
By Julian Aulke
Gustav Noske was a social democratic politician and the first politician to be a…
Entry
Ober Ost
By Kai-Achim Klare
Over the entire course of German occupation in Eastern Europe during the First W…
Entry
Oberstenaffäre
By Sebastian Steiner
The so-called “Oberstenaffäre” (colonel’s affair) was a political scandal in Swi…
Entry
Occupation of Luxembourg
By Richard Seiwerath
The violation of Luxembourg’s neutrality started with the invasion on 1 August 1…
Entry
Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele
By Spencer Di Scala
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A renowned jurist with lasting influence, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando served as ju…
Entry
Paderewski, Ignacy Jan
By Andrzej Chojnowski
Ignacy Jan Paderewski was a virtuoso pianist. He made use of his popularity in t…
Entry
Painlevé, Paul
By Anne-Laure Anizan
Paul Painlevé was a prominent French political leader from 1914-1917. He was the…
Entry
Pais, Sidónio
By Sérgio Neto
The army major and university teacher Sidónio Pais served as the Portuguese mini…
Entry
Pan Americanism
By Mark T. Gilderhus
The First World War elicited various responses from the Wilson administration ba…
Entry
Pan-German League
By Björn Hofmeister
The Pan-German League (Alldeutscher Verband) mobilized members of the Bildungsbü…
Entry
Pan-Islamism (Ottoman Empire)
By Alp Yenen
Pan-Islamism was one of the major geopolitical and civilizational concepts of th…
Entry
Panturkism
By Pınar Üre
Pan-Turkism is the nationalist ideology that emphasizes the common ethnic, cultu…
Entry
Pasha, Cavit
By Mesut Uyar
A talented administrator but a mediocre general, Cavit Pasha served in various p…
Entry
Pasha, Talat
By Hans-Lukas Kieser
A first father of modern Turkey before Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and the driving fo…
Entry
Pašić, Nikola
By Dalibor Denda
Nikola Pašić was a Serbian/Yugoslav politician and statesman. He served twenty-t…
Entry
Päts, Konstantin
By Ago Pajur
Konstantin Päts, a leading Estonian politician, was a key figure in the establis…
Entry
Paul, Alice
By Wesley Reid Bishop
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Alice Paul was an American suffragist and political rights activist. Jailed repe…
Entry
Payer, Friedrich von
By Max Haberich
Friedrich von Payer was vice-chancellor of the German Empire from November 1917 …
Entry
Pearse, Patrick
By Joost Augusteijn
Patrick Pearse was one of the leaders of the 1916 Easter Rising in which the Iri…
Entry
Peasant Uprisings/Tambovshchina
By Christopher Gilley
During the Russian Civil War, peasant uprisings swept the former Russian Empire.…
Entry
Pessoa, Epitácio
By Rafael Pinheiro de Araujo
Epitácio Pessoa served as the president of Brazil between 1919 and 1922. He led …
Entry
Petit, Gabrielle
By Sophie De Schaepdrijver
Gabrielle Petit was a secret intelligence agent working for the British General …
Entry
Piłsudski, Józef
By Michał Leśniewski
Józef Klemens Piłsudski was a Polish statesman, socialist politician, freedom fi…
Entry
Poincaré, Raymond
By Anne-Laure Anizan
Raymond Poincaré, the president of the French Republic, asserted his authority a…
Entry
Polish Paramilitary Organisations before 1914
By Mateusz Drozdowski
Polish paramilitary organizations were active in Galicia from 1910 to 1914 with …
Entry
Portuguese India
By Célia Reis
Although not directly involved in military operations, Portuguese India was link…
Entry
Portuguese Macau
By Célia Reis
During World War One, Macau's main problem was its relationship with China. This…
Entry
Portuguese Timor
By Célia Reis
The Portuguese territory of Timor was affected by the war mainly because of its …
Entry
Prochaska Affair
By Richard C. Hall
The Prochaska Affair was a diplomatic dispute between Austria-Hungary and Serbia…
Entry
Provisional Government
By Siobhan Peeling
When the tsarist government collapsed in February 1917, liberal politicians from…
Entry
Punjab Disturbances 1919
By Ahmad Azhar
This entry revisits the political upheavals that swept across several towns and …
Entry
Radoslavov, Vasil
By Vasil Paraskevov
Dr. Vasil Radoslavov was a Bulgarian politician and Prime Minister from 1913 to …
Entry
Rasputin, Grigoriĭ Efimovich
By Siobhan Peeling
Rasputin was a peasant turned pilgrim who became a close associate of the Russia…
Entry
Rathenau, Walther
By Christian Schölzel
Walther Rathenau was one of the most influential entrepreneurs before the First …
Entry
Redl, Alfred
By Günther Kronenbitter
On 25 May 1913 Colonel Alfred Redl, the former head of Austria-Hungary’s militar…
Entry
Red Scare
By Matthew F. Simmons
The Red Scare was a period of heightened fear of radicalism in the United States…
Entry
Renascença Portuguesa
By Eliana Brites Rosa
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The Renascença Portuguesa (1912-1932) was an important cultural movement during …
Entry
Renner, Karl
By Paul Dvorak
Karl Renner quickly became one of the main theoreticians of a policy of support …
Entry
Resistance (Belgium and France)
By Emmanuel Debruyne
In occupied Belgium and France, citizens opposed the German army with organized …
Entry
Revolution of 1905 (Russian Empire)
By Siobhan Peeling
Social and political unrest swept the Russian Empire in 1905, forcing the autocr…
Entry
Ribot, Alexandre Félix Joseph
By Daniel Mollenhauer
Alexandre Ribot belonged to the French political elite for more than forty years…
Entry
Riezler, Kurt
By Bernd Sösemann
Riezler was a German politician, diplomat, journalist and philosopher, as well a…
Entry
Russian Occupation of the Eastern Ottoman Empire
By Alexander E. Balistreri
The Russian occupation of the eastern Ottoman Empire entailed the wartime admini…
Entry
Said Nursi
By Abdürrahim Özer
Said Nursi was a prominent Kurdish intellectual. He fervently supported constitu…
Entry
Saint-Germain, Treaty of
By Peter Haslinger
The Treaty of Saint-Germain was signed by Austria and twenty-seven Allied and as…
Entry
Salandra, Antonio
By Stefano Marcuzzi
Antonio Salandra was an important Italian politician in the early 20th century. …
Entry
Sarajevo Incident
By Samuel Foster
The Sarajevo incident refers to the events surrounding the assassination of Arch…
Entry
Sazonov, Sergeĭ Dmitrievich
By Siobhan Peeling
Sergei Sazonov became Russian Foreign Minister in autumn 1910. In July 1914 he a…
Entry
Scheidemann, Philipp
By Bernd Braun
Philipp Scheidemann was a key figure in the German Social Democratic Party (SPD)…
Entry
Schnee, Heinrich
By Daniel Steinbach
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Heinrich Schnee was the governor of German East Africa between 1912 and 1919. Du…
Entry
Scutari crisis
By Marenglen Kasmi
The Scutari Crisis illustrates questions surrounding the creation of the new Alb…
Entry
Sea Power
By Andrew Lambert
Much attention has been accorded to the massive scale of military operations in …
Entry
Selective Service Act
By Michael Geheran
The Selective Service Act of 1917 was the official name of the military draft si…
Entry
Sembat, Marcel
By Daniel Mollenhauer
Marcel Sembat was one of the leading French socialists of the pre-war years. As …
Entry
Shakir, Bahaeddin
By Tigran Martirosyan
Bahaeddin Şakir was the reorganizer of the Committee of Union and Progress, a po…
Entry
Shaw, George Bernard
By Adam R. McKee
An Irish-born writer and critic, best known as a playwright, George Bernard Shaw…
Entry
Shti︠u︡rmer, Boris Vladimirovich
By Siobhan Peeling
Boris Shtiurmer was Prime Minister from January to November 1916, also serving a…
Entry
Sixtus Affair
By Robert Rill
The Sixtus Affair was the failed attempt by Emperor Charles I. of Austria and hi…
Entry
Smetona, Antanas
By Artūras Svarauskas
During the First World War, political writer and editor of Lithuanian magazines,…
Entry
Smuts, Jan Christian
By Anne Samson
Jan Smuts was a South African lawyer and statesman who ultimately became deputy …
Entry
Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD)
By Walter Mühlhausen
At the outbreak of the First World War, the Social Democratic Party of Germany (…
Entry
Société Suisse de Surveillance Economique (SSS)
By Florian Weber
The privately organized SSS existed from October 1915 to July 1919 to prevent Sw…
Entry
Solf, Wilhelm Heinrich
By Daniel Steinbach
Wilhelm Solf, long-term governor of German Samoa, served as Colonial Secretary b…
Entry
Sonnino, Sidney
By Paola Carlucci
Sidney Sonnino was the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs during World War I. H…
Entry
Sousa Lopes, Adriano de
By Carlos Silveira
The painter Adriano de Sousa Lopes was the only official Portuguese war artist i…
Entry
Spanish Intelligence
By Carolina García Sanz
Spain became a centre of international espionage in 1914. Its strategic location…
Entry
Spanish Neutrality
By Carolina García Sanz
The Spanish government maintained a benevolent neutrality policy towards the Ent…
Entry
Štefánik, Milan Rastislav
By Michal Kšiňan
Milan Rastislav Štefánik was a Slovak astronomer, diplomat, politician, general,…
Entry
Stereotypes
By Vanessa Ther
This article summarises the main wartime stereotypes that defined war propaganda…
Entry
Stinnes, Hugo
By Moritz Föllmer
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Hugo Stinnes was a highly successful and politically influential heavy industria…
Entry
Stockholm Conference
By Elisa Marcobelli
The Stockholm Conference, or Third Zimmerwald Conference, was held from 5 to 12 …
Entry
Stresemann, Gustav
By Tara Windsor
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Stresemann was a leading wartime annexationist and proponent of moderate domesti…
Entry
Stürgkh, Karl Graf
By Martin Moll
Karl Graf von Stürgkh was an Austrian member of the Imperial Council, Minister f…
Entry
Sussex Pledge
By Simone De Santiago Ramos
In May 1916, the German government issued a pledge to the United States that the…
Entry
Šusteršič, Ivan
By Pavlina Bobic
Ivan Šušteršič was a leading figure in the Slovenian and Habsburg political mili…
Entry
Suttner, Bertha von
By Laurie Cohen
Bertha von Suttner (1843-1914) was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1905. She wr…
Entry
Sykes-Picot Agreement
By Tariq Tell
In dividing the Fertile Crescent into British and French spheres, the wartime Sy…
Entry
Thomas, Albert
By Daniel Mollenhauer
Albert Thomas was a French socialist who served as minister of armaments in the …
Entry
Tinoco Granados, Federico
By Patricia Vega Jiménez
Federico Tinoco Granados was the Costa Rican president from 1917-1919 who declar…
Entry
Tisza, István, Gróf
By Zoltán Maruzsa
István Tisza was a Hungarian politician and minister. He served as Prime Ministe…
Entry
Trentino
By Nicola Fontana, Mirko Saltori
Trentino is an Italian-speaking region which was the southernmost part of the Ty…
Entry
Trépont, Félix
By James E. Connolly
As prefect of the département of the Nord at the outbreak of war, Félix Trépont …
Entry
Trialism
By Mateusz Drozdowski
Before and at the beginning of World War I, various proposals concerning the cre…
Entry
Trianon, Treaty of
By Miklós Zeidler
The Treaty of Trianon is one of the Paris peace treaties that ended the First Wo…
Entry
Troelstra, Pieter Jelles
By Paul Moeyes
Troelstra was a charismatic socialist leader who overestimated his influence and…
Entry
Trotsky, Leon
By Ian D. Thatcher
Leon Trotsky's communist leadership was partially responsible for bringing about…
Entry
Trumbić, Ante
By Samuel Foster
Ante Trumbić was a Croat politician who played an instrumental role in the forma…
Entry
Turkestan
By Cloé Drieu
The province of Turkestan - modern-day Central Asia -, a Russian military colony…
Entry
Ukraine
By Liubov Zhvanko
At the beginning of the 20th century Ukrainian lands were part of the Austro-Hun…
Entry
Ulmanis, Kārlis
By Ineta Lipša
Kārlis Ulmanis was the first prime minister of the Republic of Latvia. His four …
Entry
Union of Democratic Control
By David Monger
The Union of Democratic Control was a prominent opposition group in Britain that…
Entry
U.S. Intervention in the Caribbean
By Christian Cwik
Since the beginning of the 20th century, political conflicts determined relation…
Entry
Venizelos, Eleutherios
By Elli Lemonidou
One of the most prominent and important statesmen in modern Greek history, Eleut…
Entry
Versailles, Treaty of
By Susanne Brandt
The Treaty of Versailles was the first peace treaty that the victorious powers s…
Entry
Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy
By Stefano Marcuzzi
Victor Emmanuel III played an important, if often overlooked part in Italy’s dec…
Entry
Villalobar, Rodrigo de Saavedra y Vinent, Marqués de
By Emmanuel Debruyne
Rodrigo de Saavedra y Vinent, Marqués de Villalobar was the diplomatic represent…
Entry
Viviani, René
By Daniel Mollenhauer
René Viviani was a leading French politician in the early 20th century. When the…
Entry
Voldemaras, Augustinas
By Artūras Svarauskas
During the First World War, as professor at the University of Perm (Russia), Aug…
Entry
Vollmachtenregime
By Oliver Schneider
During the First World War, the Swiss federal government imposed a state of emer…
Entry
Vorarlberg Referendum
By Wolfgang Weber
The latter Austrian Land Vorarlberg saw the rise of a grass root movement for a …
Entry
Wangenheim, Hans von
By Christos Bouris
Baron Hans von Wangenheim was the German ambassador to the Ottoman capital betwe…
Entry
War Requirement Acts
By Ágnes Pogány
The War Requirements Acts were passed in Austria-Hungary in 1912. They placed mi…
Entry
War Surveillance Office (Austria-Hungary)
By Tamara Scheer
During the First World War, Austria-Hungary implemented a state of emergency wit…
Entry
Washington Conference 1921-1922
By Tadashi Nakatani
The Washington Conference was held from November 1921 to February 1922 with the …
Entry
Weber, Alfred
By Eberhard Demm
As an adviser in the imperial office of the treasury (1916-1918), the Heidelberg…
Entry
Whitlock, Brand
By Branden Little
Brand Whitlock served as the U.S. minister and ambassador to Belgium from 1914–1…
Entry
Wied, Wilhelm, Prinz zu
By Eva Anne Frantz
Wilhelm Friedrich Heinrich Prince of Wied, born to a German Protestant noble fam…
Entry
Wilhelm II, German Emperor
By John C. G. Röhl
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Kaiser Wilhelm II’s ambitious policies played a major part in bringing about the…
Entry
Wilhelmina, Queen of the Netherlands
By Paul Moeyes
Queen Wilhelmina was by nature a forceful leader. The First World War showed tha…
Entry
Wilson, Woodrow
By Mark E. Benbow
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the twenty-eighth president of the United States (1913…
Entry
Workers' or Revolutionary Councils
By Anthony McElligott
At the end of the First World War, Workers’ and Soldiers’ Councils spread throug…
Entry
Yrigoyen, Hipólito
By María Inés Tato
Hipólito Yrigoyen was president of Argentina during a critical moment of the Fir…
Entry
Zetkin, Clara
By Christina Morina
Referred to as the “grandmother of German communism” at the time of her death in…
Entry
Zhekov, Nikola
By Deniza Petrova
Nikola Zhekov was a Bulgarian infantry general, the Bulgarian minister of war fr…
Entry
Zimmermann Telegram
By Stefan Rinke
Named for its author, the German minister of foreign affairs Arthur Zimmermann, …
Entry
Zimmerwald Conference
By Bernard Degen
Anti-war socialists from ten countries met in Zimmerwald in September 1915. They…
Entry
Zionism
By Ofer Idels
Zionism is a movement that aspired to the creation of a sovereign Jewish state. …
See Also
Regional
Afghanistan
By Hugh Beattie
Since 1905 Britain had paid the Afghan ruler, Amir Habibullah, a subsidy and had…
Regional
Albania
By Isa Blumi
Though largely understudied to date, the regions in the western Balkans inhabite…
Regional
Australia
By Joan Beaumont
The impact of the First World War on Australia was so profound that its memory d…
Regional
Austria-Hungary
By Pieter M. Judson
The article surveys the social and military history of Austria-Hungary during th…
Regional
Baltic States and Finland
By Klaus Richter
This article presents a survey of the First World War in the region of today’s s…
Regional
Belgium
By Sophie De Schaepdrijver
Belgium, a neutral state, was forced into the First World War by a German ultima…
Regional
Bulgaria
By Richard C. Hall
From 1912 to 1918 Bulgaria engaged in a prolonged conflict that began in victory…
Regional
Burma
By Michael W. Charney
Burma’s participation in World War I was limited mainly to the provision of troo…
Regional
China
By Klaus Mühlhahn
This article discusses China’s role in the First World War with a focus on the c…
Regional
Denmark
By Nils Arne Sørensen
With its economy highly reliant on Great Britain, Germany and other European nat…
Regional
East and Central Africa
By Anne Samson
The war in East and Central Africa was one of the longest running of the Great W…
Regional
Egypt
By Christopher S. Rose
Egypt played an important role in World War I. Although it saw limited combat op…
Regional
France
By Nicolas Beaupré
To study France during the “Great War” – as it was called as early as 1914 – inv…
Regional
Germany
By Gerhard Hirschfeld
When war broke out, in light of increasingly inflexible constellations and allia…
Regional
Great Britain
By Stephen Badsey
_Wants_You_Alfred_Leete_1914_IMG-128x128.jpg)
Great Britain was with its Empire the most powerful of the major belligerents, t…
Regional
Greece
By Loukianos Hassiotis
Greece officially entered the Great War rather belatedly in June 1917, despite i…
Regional
Ireland
By Richard S. Grayson
Ireland’s war experience cannot be separated from Irish politics. Indeed, the st…
Regional
Latin America
By Stefan Rinke, Karina Kriegesmann
When the First World War broke out in Europe, Latin Americans of all social stra…
Regional
Luxembourg
By Benoît Majerus, Charel Roemer
Despite its neutrality, Luxembourg was occupied in August 1914, mainly for its s…
Regional
Montenegro
By Radoslav Raspopović
Montenegro entered the First World War politically and militarily exhausted. The…
Regional
Naval Blockade (of Germany)
By Alan Kramer
Blockades, part of economic warfare, had been employed throughout history. The A…
Regional
Newfoundland
By James K. Hiller, Mike O'Brien
Newfoundland entered the Great War with great enthusiasm, but was unprepared for…
Regional
New Zealand
By Kate Hunter
New Zealand was the British Dominion furthest from the conflict in Europe, the M…
Regional
Norway
By Karl Erik Haug
Norway managed to stay neutral during the First World War, but the war still cre…
Regional
Ottoman Empire/Middle East
By Yücel Yanıkdağ
During the Great War, the Ottoman Empire fought on several major and minor front…
Regional
Persia/Iran
By Touraj Atabaki
The outbreak of the First World War coincided with a period in Persian history w…
Regional
Poland
By Piotr Szlanta
This paper presents the process of building an independent Polish state during t…
Regional
Portugal
By Maria Fernanda Rollo, Ana Paula Pires, Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses
Portugal’s participation in the First World War was depicted by its supporters a…
Regional
Romania
By Harald Heppner, Rudolf Gräf
World War I afforded the first opportunity for modern Romania to participate in …
Regional
Russian Empire
By Joshua A. Sanborn
The Russian Empire entered the war in order to preserve its Great Power status, …
Regional
Serbia
By Mile Bjelajac
A short synthesis on Serbia's role and experience in the Great War encompasses s…
Regional
Siam
By Stefan Hell
Siam (Thailand) declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary in mid-1917. In 1918…
Regional
Southern Africa
By William Kelleher Storey
The people of Southern Africa experienced the First World War as a continuation …
Regional
Spain
By Javier Ponce
This article examines Spain’s neutrality during the Great War, highlighting fact…
Regional
Sweden
By Sofi Qvarnström
For Sweden, the impact of the war was twofold. On the one hand, it was a test to…
Regional
Switzerland
By Jakob Tanner
As a neutral country, Switzerland was not involved in the devastating military c…
Regional
Taiwan
By Evan Dawley
_IMG-128x128.jpg)
Taiwan, Japan’s first colony, sat geographically far removed from the European b…
Regional
The Netherlands
By Samuël Kruizinga, Paul Moeyes, Wim Klinkert
The Netherlands remained neutral during the First World War, but was nevertheles…
Regional
Union of South Africa
By Timothy J. Stapleton
In 1914, the Union of South Africa was four years old; its military only two. Br…
Regional
United States of America
By Jennifer D. Keene
The American debate over neutrality ended when Woodrow Wilson decided in April 1…
Regional
West Africa
By George N. Njung
This article examines the deployment of West African soldiers for military servi…
Regional
Yugoslavia
By Ljubinka Trgovčević
The idea for the unification of the Southern Slavs emerged in the 19th century a…
