Warfare 1914-1918 (New Zealand)

By Aaron Patrick Fox

1914-1918 Online

Internal Encyclopedia of the First World War

This text is licensed under Creative Commmons Licence

(Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Germany-CC BY-NC-ND 3.0)

Table of Contents

- 1 Introduction

- 2 New Zealand’s Army of 1914

- 2.1 Training and Equipping the Territorial Force

- 3 Preparations for War

- 3.1 First Victory

- 3.2 Departure of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force

- 4 The Gallipoli Campaign 1915

- 5 The New Zealand Division 1916-1919

- 5.1 Arrival in France 1916

- 5.2 Features of the New Zealand Division

- 5.3 The New Zealand Division in Belgium 1917

- 5.4 The New Zealand Division in France 1918

- 6 The New Zealand Mounted Rifles in Sinai and Palestine 1916-1918

- 7 Other New Zealand Units

- 8 New Zealanders in the Royal Navy

- 9 New Zealand Airmen

- 10 The Cost of the War

- 11 Conclusion

- Notes

- Selected Bibliography

- Citation

1 Introduction

New Zealand’s contribution to the First World War was as a junior but nonetheless dedicated member of the Imperial British war effort. Perceptions of a German threat to security in the Pacific prior to the First World War, matched with New Zealand’s close economic, political and social and cultural links to Great Britain, contributed to New Zealand’s enthusiastic response to Britain’s declaration of war on Germany on 4 August 1914.

2 New Zealand’s Army of 1914

New Zealand's military establishment of 1914 was shaped by both the experience of warfare in South Africa between 1899 and 1902 and by the British military requirements for standardised imperial military units. Mounted infantry performed the vital protection, reconnaissance and dismounted roles in the field, while infantry formed the bulk of New Zealand's 20,000-strong Territorial Force established in 1910, under the command of Major-General Sir Alexander Godley (1867-1957).

2.1 Training and Equipping the Territorial Force

A territorial training system was introduced in mid-1911 at the direction of Field Marshal Lord Horatio Herbert Kitchener (1850-1916), which required staged conscripted service by young New Zealand males between the ages of eighteen and twenty-five. Peace-time arrangements saw New Zealand establishing seventeen infantry regiments and twelve mounted rifles regiments raised within provincial boundaries. Specialist units including engineers, post and telegraph and medical services were generally staffed by officers and men who had corresponding professional roles in civilian life.

The uniforming, equipping and arming of New Zealand forces was based on British military establishments. New Zealand Army other ranks’ uniforms, introduced in 1912, were modelled on the British 1902 Pattern uniform, with a four-pocket tunic and trousers, wrapped from ankle to knee in woollen puttees, matched with either a peaked forage cap or wide-brimmed felt hat. The felt hat was originally worn in the Australian style with a crease running from front to back. However, a hat with the crown shaped into four dents rising to a peak, first adopted by the Wellington Infantry Battalion, the Otago Mounted Rifles and the New Zealand Field Artillery, became associated with the Wellington Infantry Battalion during the Gallipoli Campaign and was adopted by the New Zealand Division in 1916 as the iconic New Zealand military "lemon squeezer".

The standard rifle was the .303 calibre Lee Enfield; either the Long Lee Enfield used in South Africa or, for the mounted units, the newer rifle, Short Magazine Lee Enfield No.1. Infantry were equipped with a New Zealand modification of the 1908 Mills Burrows webbing equipment, manufactured by the Mills Equipment Company, while Engineers were provided with a basic webbing garrison rig. Mounted Rifles Regiments used New Zealand designed and manufactured bandolier equipment, while the New Zealand Field Artillery wore the standard British 1903 Pattern leather bandolier. Modern 18-pounder field guns and 4.5-inch howitzers were imported to New Zealand for training together with the .303 Mark III Maxim Gun. General Sir Ian Hamilton (1853-1947), Inspector-General of the Overseas Forces, visited the 1914 annual camps throughout the country, observing that "after a comparatively short period of continuous training the infantry would… be ready for war as regards their tactical efficiency".[1]

3 Preparations for War

New Zealand had readied for war late in July 1914 as the crisis in Europe deepened. When news of Britain’s declaration of war reached New Zealand on 5 August 1914, the government offered an Expeditionary Force under the command of Major-General Godley to assist the British war effort on the Western Front. When this offer was accepted by the British government on 12 August a volunteer force drawn principally from those with previous military service quickly assembled a "Main Body" of a brigade of four battalions of infantry, a brigade of three regiments of mounted rifles, the Otago Mounted Rifles as a separate divisional mounted rifles regiment, and support units. The various units were recruited within each of the four military districts: Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury and Otago. Each district provided an Infantry battalion and a regiment of Mounted Rifles. Troopers provided their own saddlery, soldiers their own boots. Patriotic societies provided shirts and other comforts, while the Defence Force supplied uniforms, equipment and weaponry.

3.1 First Victory

A hastily-assembled expeditionary force of 1,374 New Zealand troops landed at Apia, German Samoa on 29 August 1914 to accept the surrender of the second German possession after Togoland to fall to allied troops following the outbreak of war. New Zealand’s victory was almost short-lived with the appearance on the skyline of the German cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, but both warships departed without firing a shot at the New Zealand troops who had gathered on the beach to observe their movements.[2]

3.2 Departure of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force

The Main Body assembled in Wellington in September 1914 and the 8,454 men and 3,815 horses sailed the following month once sufficient naval escort had been obtained (including the Imperial Japanese naval vessel Ibuki). After a voyage punctuated by the destruction of the German raider SMS Emden by the HMAS Sydney, the combined Australian and New Zealand force disembarked at Alexandria in December 1914 where they were to be prepared for active service before transferring to the Western Front. Turkey's entry into the war in October 1914 soon involved New Zealand forces in Middle Eastern conflict. In December 1914 New Zealand troops were part of the armed presence in Cairo to support the British establishment of the new Sultanate in order to suppress any local disturbances. In February 1915 New Zealand troops first went into battle against Turkish forces which had crossed the Sinai Desert to attack the Suez Canal. The ease with which this attack was repulsed gave the New Zealanders a false impression of Turkish military capabilities.

4 The Gallipoli Campaign 1915

On 25 April 1915 New Zealand troops were committed together with Australian forces near Gaba Tepe as part of the Anglo-French amphibious assault on the Gallipoli Peninsula. While peacetime training had emphasised how mounted infantry and infantry should work together, New Zealand's mounted regiments and horses were left in Egypt in April 1915. New Zealand infantry landed close to Ari Burnu at the small cove now known as Anzac Cove on 25 April, following behind the main Australian assault on the heights north of Gaba Tepe. New Zealand troops first went into action on the morning of 25 April, and for the rest of the campaign became intermingled with the Australian forces in the small allied foothold at Anzac Cove. Amongst the significant battles in which the New Zealand forces took part were the defence of Anzac Cove on 2 May the attack on Krithia on 8 May and the Sari Bar offensive between 6 and 9 August.

Tactics employed by New Zealand troops developed from the massed infantry attacks for which their peacetime training had prepared them, through to the bitter hand to hand bayonet fighting and grenade tactics developed for the August offensive. Specialist machine gun units and sniping and observation sections were also developed during the campaign. The mounted rifles regiments arrived in May 1915 and played a significant role in the New Zealand assault towards Chunuk Bair on 6 August. The 18-pounder field guns and 4.5-inch howitzers of the New Zealand Field Artillery were also vital in suppressing Turkish threats at Anzac Cove, while the sole Victoria Cross won by a New Zealander at Gallipoli was awarded to Corporal Cyril Bassett (1892-1983) for his tireless work during 8 August to maintain lines of communication with the advance New Zealand forces on the crest of Chunuk Bair. The New Zealand experience at Gallipoli was most notable for the challenges presented by the terrain, diet, rampant dysentery, water shortages and poor sanitation, a combination best described as an epic of endurance. A select number of New Zealanders who landed on 25 April remained at Anzac Cove to take part in the final evacuation in December 1915. The 7,500 New Zealand casualties included 2,721 dead.[3]

5 The New Zealand Division 1916-1919

The New Zealand forces in 1916 were again concentrated in Egypt, where the infantry brigade was increased to a full infantry division under the command of Major-General Sir Andrew Russell (1868-1960) for service in France. The New Zealand Division was now comprised of the First and Second Infantry Brigades and the Third New Zealand Rifle Brigade raised in 1915, elements of which had taken part in the brief Senussi Campaign in western Egypt from November 1915 to January 1916.[4]

5.1 Arrival in France 1916

In May 1916 the New Zealand Division left Egypt for Marseilles and thence to Armentières as part of I ANZAC Corps, 2nd Army. In June 1916 the Division became part of II ANZAC Corps commanded by Lieutenant-General Godley and learned the essentials of trench warfare and raiding while keeping the opposing German forces in situ during the commencement of the Somme Offensive. The lessons were hard-learned, for by mid-August the division had suffered some 2,500 casualties. In September 1915, as part of the 4th Army, the division attacked towards Flers, and during twenty-three days of attacks and skirmishes suffered some 7,000 casualties, including 1,500 dead. Amongst the dead was Sergeant Donald Brown (1890-1916), posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for leading an assault on German machine gun positions and rallying his men amidst heavy shellfire.

5.2 Features of the New Zealand Division

A distinctive feature of the New Zealand Division was the presence of Maori and Pacific Island troops in what became known as the New Zealand (Maori) Pioneer Battalion.[5] As the New Zealand Native Contingent, Maori troops were based in Malta in 1915 and took part in the August 1915 offensive on Sari Bar at Gallipoli. In 1916 a Pioneer Battalion comprised of Maori Pioneers, reinforcements from the Pacific Islands of Nuie and the Cook Islands and personnel from the Otago Mounted Rifles Regiment arrived in France, where they staged two trench raids in mid-1916, thereafter undertaking trench construction and other support work, as well as operating the Divisional Trench Warfare School. New Zealand Tunnellers, many of them former coal miners, served with distinction at Gallipoli and on the Western Front, particularly at Messines in 1917 and at Arras from 1916 to 1918. A New Zealand Cyclist Corps was also formed in March 1916 to operate as mobile light infantry, but from July 1916 the unit largely worked behind the New Zealand lines in support roles, fighting as infantry in April and July-August 1918. Other specialist New Zealand units operated .303 Vickers Medium Machine Guns and Trench Mortars.

Meanwhile in New Zealand the demands of keeping a full division – some 20,000 soldiers – in the field required the introduction of conscription on 16 November 1916. Initially, balloting was used to make up the shortfall in volunteers, but from August 1917 recruits other than volunteers were conscripted. Single and newly-married men were the first to be balloted, but this was extended to married men without children in October 1917, and in 1918 married men with one or two children were also being called up. Those who refused to serve were classed as defaulters and were court-martialed and sentenced to hard labour, while fourteen were forcibly enlisted and shipped to the Western Front. Archibald Baxter’s (1881-1970) published memoir of his brutal treatment in the frontline as a conscientious objector, We Will Not Cease, remains a classic of anti-war literature. Some Maori – particularly those in the Waikato Region who remained incensed at the confiscation of Maori land during and after the New Zealand Wars of the 19th century – also resisted conscription, arguing that it contravened the Treaty of Waitangi.[6]

The New Zealand Division was also supported by a network of camps, hospitals and depots in England, commanded by Brigadier-General George Richardson (1868-1938). The principal New Zealand base was at Sling Camp in Wiltshire which could accommodate up to 5,000 men, while additional camps provided training for specialist troops. The three New Zealand General Hospitals at Brockenhurst, Walton-on-Thames and Codford were capable of treating in excess of 3,500 men. Wounded or sick soldiers were then sent to convalescent homes before either returning to the Division via Etaples in France, or being repatriated to New Zealand via the discharge depot at Torquay.[7]

5.3 The New Zealand Division in Belgium 1917

In 1917 the New Zealand Division, expanded with a Fourth Brigade formed in March 1917, took part in two major offensives in Belgium. In June 1917 the division played a key role in seizing the Belgian town of Messines following the detonation of three large mines located under the German trenches. Captain Samuel Frickleton (1891-1971) won the Victoria Cross for braving heavy artillery fire to destroy two enemy machine-gun posts. The success of this attack is commemorated in part by the twinning of Messines with the New Zealand town of Featherston. The division’s involvement in the Third Battle of Ypres, attacking the Passchendaele Ridge resulted in what remains New Zealand's most disastrous military day. On 4 October the division captured Gravenstafel Spur, and a week later was given the objective of capturing Bellevue Spur. On 12 October New Zealand troops attacked across waterlogged ground at Passchendaele suffering some 2,700 casualties without gaining Bellevue Spur. In December 1917, the Division was in the Polygon Wood sector, and on 3 December attacked the Polderhoek Chateau, where Private Henry Nicholas (1891-1918) was awarded the Victoria Cross for single-handedly shooting, bayoneting or bombing all the members of an enemy strong point.

One consequence of the military debacles of 1917 was that New Zealand military discipline was hardened in response to the lowering morale/discipline of the troops. Five New Zealanders were executed between 1916 and 1918, four on the charge of desertion and one for mutiny. All five sentences were finally pardoned by the New Zealand government in 2000.[8]

5.4 The New Zealand Division in France 1918

From 24 March 1918 the New Zealand Division, reduced to three brigades, played a key role in halting and turning the German Spring Offensive which had split apart the British 3rd and 5th Armies. New Zealand troops stabilised a gap in the lines between Hebuterne and Hamel, at the cost of 500 dead and 1,800 wounded. A collection of New Zealand units were also in the desperate fighting to hold the line on the Lys, with 201 men of an Entrenching Battalion isolated and taken prisoner at Meteren on 16 April. The allied counterattack in July included the successful New Zealand assault at Rossignol Wood, where Sergeant Richard Travis (1884-1918) won the Victoria Cross for destroying German defences and single-handedly killing two machine gun crews and their reinforcements. The reputation of the Division at this time was detailed in a German intelligence appraisal captured at Hebuterne:

A particularly good assault Division. Its characteristics are a very strongly developed individual self-confidence or enterprise, characteristic of the colonial British, and a specially pronounced hatred of the Germans. The Division prides itself on taking few prisoners.[9]

From August 1918 the New Zealand Division again played a key role in defeating the German army across the old Somme battlefields of 1916 towards the Hindenburg Line and thence to the River Selle. Five New Zealanders were awarded the Victoria Cross during the last 100 days of the war. On 4 November New Zealand troops liberated the town of Le Quesnoy by scaling the massive Vauban-designed defensive walls by ladder, thereby liberating this historic village without loss of civilian life. Following the 11 November Armistice, New Zealand troops marched into Germany in December 1918, occupying Cologne until the division was concentrated at Mulheim and disbanded by 25 March 1919.[10]

6 The New Zealand Mounted Rifles in Sinai and Palestine 1916-1918

The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, under the command of Brigadier-General Edward Chaytor (1868-1939) served with Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division as part of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Some New Zealanders also served in this campaign with the Imperial Camel Corps. The New Zealand Mounted Rifles fought alongside Australian and British forces in the Sinai, taking part in the battles of Rafa Romani and Gaza. Chaytor had demonstrated his ability to command mounted troops, particularly his "real eye for ground and a fight" and took command of the Mounted Division in April 1917, while General Sir Edmund Allenby (1861-1936) assumed command of the Expeditionary Force. The New Zealanders then fought in the Battle of Beersheeba in October 1917, advancing to Jaffa on 16 November once the Turkish line had been broken, resting at Richon le Zion while Jerusalem was liberated in December.

In February 1918 the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade broke through the Turkish lines at El Muntar, opening up the advance to Jericho. Raids against Amman and Es Salt were less successful, but in September 1918, as part of "Chaytor’s Force", a composite division of mounted rifles, infantry and artillery, the New Zealanders attacked towards Megiddo, where Turkish forces quickly surrendered. On 22 September the Mounted Division crossed the Jordan River, taking Es Salt the following day and Amman on 25 September, covering more than seventy kilometres and taking 3,000 prisoners in the process. New Zealand machine gunners destroyed a column of retreating Turks in the Barada Gorge, near Damascus, which was in turn entered by Australian Light Horsemen on 1 October. The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade was already back in camp at Richon le Zion when the Armistice with the Ottoman Empire came into effect on 31 October. One regiment returned to Gallipoli to monitor the Armistice, while the rest of the Brigade experienced uneasy relations with the local Arab population, culminating in the massacre of the villagers at Surafend in revenge for the murder of a New Zealand soldier. The Brigade returned to Egypt in December 1918, where it helped to suppress nationalist unrest before returning to New Zealand. New Zealand’s casualties during the Sinai-Palestine Campaign totaled 1,470, of whom 543 died.[11]

7 Other New Zealand Units

New Zealanders also served with Australian signalers in Mesopotamia in 1916 and 1917 and in Persia in 1917, as part of the ANZAC Wireless Squadron, which provided mobile wireless communication and interception services. Four New Zealand Sergeants served with the Syren and Elope forces of the British North Russia Expeditionary Force until withdrawn in March 1919, while a number of New Zealanders volunteered to serve with the North Russian Relief Force. Other New Zealanders served with Dunsterforce in Mesopotamia and Persia in 1918 and 1919. It should also be noted that significant numbers of New Zealanders served with the Australian Imperial Force (Wilfred Victor Knight (1890-1915) was the first New Zealander killed at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915 while serving in the 1st Australian Infantry Battalion), while a smaller number, most of whom were officers, served in the British army, including John Hugh Allen (1887-1915), the son of Sir James Allen (1855-1942) the Minister of Defence, who was killed in action on 6 June 1915 while serving as a Lieutenant in the Essex Regiment at Gallipoli.[12]

8 New Zealanders in the Royal Navy

Some 500 New Zealanders served with the Royal Navy, including Lieutenant-Commander William Sanders (1883-1917), who served on Royal Navy minesweepers in 1916 before transferring to Q-Ships. In February 1917 Sanders was given command of HMS Prize, a captured German schooner which had been converted into a Q-Ship for the purpose of enticing German submarines within range of the Q-Ship’s guns. Sanders’ ship encountered the U-93 on 30 April 1917, during which engagement both ships were badly damaged. Sanders received the Victoria Cross for his coolness under fire. Prize was lost with all hands on 14 August 1917, when it was torpedoed by the U-48. A significant contingent of New Zealanders were serving on the HMS Pyramus and the HMS Philomel at the outbreak of war in 1914, while HMS New Zealand, gifted by New Zealand to the Royal Navy and launched in 1911, fought at Heligoland Bight in August 1914, Dogger Bank in January 1915, and at Jutland on 31 May 1916. The battlecruiser came through these engagements largely unscathed, which the crew attributed to their captain wearing during the fighting the Maori Tiki and Piupiu gifted to the ship during a visit to New Zealand in 1913.

When HMS Philomel was decommissioned in 1917, it became a depot ship in Auckland, only briefly returning to active service in 1918 as a depot ship for trawlers converted for minesweeping operations in response to the activities of the German raider SMS Wolf, which had laid mines off New Zealand. Two New Zealand hospital ships, the Maheno and Marama, were equipped and dispatched to assist in the treatment of troops during and after the Gallipoli Campaign.[13]

9 New Zealand Airmen

New Zealanders also served with the Royal Flying Corps, the Royal Air Force and the Royal Naval Air Service including Major Keith Park, (1892-1975), later Air Chief Marshal Sir Keith Park, in command of 11 Group, Royal Air Force during the Battle of Britain in 1940, and Arthur Coningham (1895-1948), later Air Marshal Sir Arthur Coningham, commander of the Desert Air Force in North Africa and the 1st Tactical Air Force in 1942 and 2nd Tactical Air Force during D-Day. Second Lieutenant William Rhodes-Moorhouse (1887-1915), whose mother was of Maori descent, flew with 2 Squadron in France in 1914, and on 26 April 1915 continued with his attack on a German rail junction at Courtrai in Belgium despite having been badly wounded and his aircraft severely damaged. He returned to base but died the following day. He was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross. Major Keith Logan "Grid" Caldwell (1895-1980), later Air Commodore, was commissioned into the Royal Flying Corps in 1916 and became noted for his aggression as a pilot in Nieuport and SE5A fighter aircraft in 60 and 74 Squadrons. The leading New Zealand ace of the war was Ronald Burns Bannerman (1890-1978), later Air Commodore, who was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and Bar in recognition of his three-month active service in Sopwith Dolphins on the Western Front in 1918.[14]

10 The Cost of the War

New Zealand maintained large military training camps near Wellington, at Trentham and Featherston, and smaller camps at Awapuni and Narrow Neck, where some 120,000 men were trained over four years. Approximately 102,000 New Zealanders embarked for active service of whom 18,000 died as a result of their service and some 41,000 were wounded or became sick. Twenty-five years later, sons of many veterans of the First World War enlisted for service in the Second World War.[15]

11 Conclusion

New Zealand emerged from the First World War with an enhanced status as a Dominion within the British Empire, signing the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 and becoming a member of the League of Nations upon its formation. During the 1922 Chanak Crisis, New Zealanders once again volunteered their services in the looming conflict with Turkey, but the popular militarism which had prevailed in 1914 gradually faded once the Chanak Crisis ended and communities began to erect their war memorials and count the cost of the war. Anzac Day, the anniversary of the first landings of Australian and New Zealand soldiers at Gallipoli on 25 April, became a national day of war commemoration from 1916 and the Gallipoli Campaign itself became understood as a defining event in the development of New Zealand’s national identity.[16]

Aaron Patrick Fox, Independent Scholar

Section Editor : Kate Hunter

Notes

1. ↑ Cooke, Peter and Crawford, John: The Territorials. The History of the Territorial and Volunteer Forces of New Zealand, Auckland 2011, p. 183. See also McGibbon, Ian: The Path to Gallipoli: defending New Zealand 1840–1915, Wellington 1991. Details of uniforms, equipment and weaponry can be found in O’Sullivan, Barry and O’Sullivan, Matthew: New Zealand Army Personal Equipment 1910-1945, Christchurch 2005 and O’Sullivan, Barry and O’Sullivan, Matthew: New Zealand Army Uniforms and Clothing 1910-1945, Christchurch 2008. Details of insignia can be found in Corbett, David: The Regimental Badges of New Zealand. An Illustrated History of the badges and insignia worn by the New Zealand Army, Auckland 1980 and Thomas, Malcolm and Lord, Cliff: New Zealand Army Distinguishing Patches 1911-1991, Part One, Wellington 1995.

2. ↑ Smith, Stephen: The Samoa (N.Z.) Expeditionary Force 1914-15. Wellington 1924, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Samo.html (retrieved: 16 August 2016).

3. ↑ The campaign history of the New Zealanders at Gallipoli is Waite, Fred: The New Zealanders at Gallipoli, Auckland 1919, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WaiNewZ.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>). Histories of New Zealand units involved with the Gallipoli Campaign include Byrne, Arthur Emmett: Official History of the Otago Regiment, N.Z.E.F. in the Great War 1914-1918, Dunedin 1921, online: [http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Otag.html http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Otag.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Burton, Ormond: The Auckland Regiment. Auckland 1922, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1Auck.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Cunningham, William / Treadwell, Charles / Hanna, James: The Wellington Regiment (NZEF) 1914-1919. Wellington 1928, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Well.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Ferguson, David: The History of the Canterbury Regiment N.Z.E.F. 1914-1919, Auckland 1921, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Cant.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Mackay, Don (ed.): The Troopers’ Tale. The History of the Otago Mounted Rifles, Dunedin 2012; Annabel, Norman: Official History of the New Zealand Engineers During the Great War 1914-1918. Wanganui 1927, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Engi.html (retrieved 16 August 2016); Byrne, John: New Zealand Artillery in the Field 1914-18. Auckland 1922, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1NZAr.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Carbery, Andrew: The New Zealand Medical Service in the Great War 1914-1918. Auckland 1924, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Medi.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Ellis, Roy: By Wires to Victory describing the work of the New Zealand Divisional Signal Company in 1914–1918 War, Auckland 1968; and Kendall, Sherayl and Corbett, David: New Zealand Military Nursing. A History of the R.N.Z.N.C. Boer War to the Present Day, Auckland 1990. More recent studies of New Zealand’s role in the campaign include Pugsley, Christopher: Gallipoli, The New Zealand Story. Auckland 1984; Harper, Glyn: Letters from Gallipoli. New Zealand soldiers write home. Auckland 2011; Kinloch, Terry: Echoes of Gallipoli. In the words of New Zealand’s Mounted Riflemen, Auckland 2005; Pugsley, Christopher and Ferrall, Charles: Remembering Gallipoli. Interviews with New Zealand Gallipoli Veterans, Wellington 2015; and Vennell, Jock: Man of Iron, The Extraordinary Story of New Zealand WW1 Hero William Malone. Auckland 2015. New Zealand’s Victoria Cross recipients are detailed in Harper, Glyn and Richardson, Colin: In the face of the enemy: The complete history of the Victoria Cross and New Zealand, Auckland 2007. For a full list of the honours and awards to New Zealanders for service during the First World War see McDonald, W.: Honours and awards to the New Zealand Expeditionary Force in the Great War, 1914-1918. Napier 2001.

4. ↑ The campaign history of the New Zealand Division on the Western Front between 1916 and 1919 is Stewart, Hugh: The New Zealand Division 1916-1919: A Popular History based on Official Records, Auckland 1921, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Fran.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>). Histories of the New Zealand units which served with the New Zealand Division between 1916 and 1919 include Austin, William: Official History of the New Zealand Rifle Brigade. Wellington 1924, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-NZRi.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Burton, Ormond: The Auckland Regiment. Auckland 1922, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1Auck.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Cunningham / Treadwell / Hanna, The Wellington Regiment (NZEF) 1928; Ferguson, David: The History of the Canterbury Regiment N.Z.E.F. 1914-1919. Auckland 1921, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Cant.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Mackay, The Troopers’ Tale 2012; Annabel, Official History of the New Zealand Engineers 1927; Byrne, John: New Zealand Artillery in the Field 1914-18. Auckland 1922, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1NZAr.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Carbery, Andrew: The New Zealand Medical Service in the Great War 1914-1918. Auckland 1924, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Medi.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Ellis, By Wires to Victory 1968; Kendall and Corbett, New Zealand Military Nursing 1990; Napier, William: With the Trench Mortars in France. Auckland 1923; Neill, J. C. (ed.): The New Zealand Tunnelling Company 1915–1919. Auckland 1922; Sloane, Keith: Living With High Explosives: The 1st New Zealand Light Trench Mortar Battery 1916-1918, Auckland 2014; and Officers of the New Zealand Cyclists Corps, Regimental History of the New Zealand Cyclist Corps in the Great War 1914-1918, Auckland 1922, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Cycl.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>). Recent studies of the New Zealand Division include Pugsley, Christopher: The Anzac Experience. New Zealand, Australia and Empire in the First World War, Auckland 2004; Gray, John H.: From the Uttermost Ends of the Earth. The New Zealand Division on the Western Front 1916-1918, Christchurch 2010; Macdonald, Andrew: On My Way to the Somme: New Zealanders and the Bloody Offensive of 1916, Auckland 2005; and Vennell, Jock: The Forgotten General. New Zealand's World War I Commander, Major-General Sir Andrew Russell, Sydney 2011.

5. ↑ Originally entitled the New Zealand Maori Contingent when it was formed in October 1914, the unit was reformed into the New Zealand Pioneer Battalion in February 1916 with the addition of non-Maori personnel and became the New Zealand (Maori) Pioneer Battalion in September 1917 when it again became an entirely Maori unit. See Cowan, James: Maori in the Great War. Auckland 1926, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-CowMaor.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>) and Pugsley, Christopher: Te Hokowhitu A Tu. The Maori Pioneer Battalion in the First World War, Auckland 1995.

6. ↑ Baker, Paul: King and Country Call: New Zealanders, Conscription and the Great War, Auckland 1988; Loveridge, Steven: Calls to Arms. New Zealand Society and Commitment to the Great War, Wellington 2014.

7. ↑ Drew, Henry (ed.): The War Effort of New Zealand, A Popular History of (a) Minor Campaigns in which New Zealanders took part; (b) Services not fully dealt with in the Campaign Volumes; (c) The Work at the Bases, Auckland 1923, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Effo.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>).

8. ↑ Studies of New Zealand’s role in the Battle of Passchendale include Harper, Glyn: Massacre at Passchendaele: The New Zealand story, East Sussex 2000; Harper, Glyn: Dark Journey: Passchendaele, the Somme and the New Zealand experience on the Western Front, Auckland 2007; Macdonald, Andrew: Passchendaele. The Anatomy of a Tragedy, Auckland 2013. For New Zealand military discipline and capital courts-martial see Pugsley, Christopher: On the Fringe of Hell: New Zealanders and Military Discipline in the First World War, Auckland 1991.

9. ↑ Stewart, Hugh: The New Zealand Division 1916-1919: A Popular History based on Official Records, Auckland 1921, p. 617.

10. ↑ Accounts of New Zealand on the Western Front in 1918 include Allen, S. S.: 2/Auckland, 1918, being a partial record of the war service in France of the 2/Auckland Regiment during the Great War, Auckland 1920; McKinlay, Ernest: Ways and Byways of a Singing Kiwi. With the N.Z. Divisional Entertainers in France, Dunedin 1939, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-McKWays.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); and Phillipe, Natalie/Pugsley, Christopher/Crawford, John/Strohn, Matthias (eds.): The Great Adventure Ends. New Zealand and France on the Western Front, Christchurch 2013.

11. ↑ The campaign history of the New Zealand campaign in Sinai-Palestine 1916-1918 is Powles, C. Guy: The New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine. Auckland 1922, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Sina.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>). Histories of the New Zealand units that served in Sinai-Palestine include Nicol, Charles: The Story of Two Campaigns: Official War History of the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment 1914-1919, Auckland 1921, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Stor.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Powles, C. Guy: The History of the Canterbury Mounted Rifles 1914-1919. Auckland 1928, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1CMRi.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Wilkie, Alexander: Official War History of the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment 1914-1919. Auckland 1924, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Moun.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); Luxford, John: With the Machine Gunners in France and Palestine. Auckland 1923, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Mach.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>); and Robertson, John: With the Cameliers in Palestine. Dunedin 1938, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1-Came.html (retrieved 16 August 2016</u>). Recent studies of New Zealand’s role in the Sinai-Palestine campaign include Kinloch, Terry: Devils on Horses, In the words of the ANZACS in the Middle East 1916-19. Auckland 2007; Smith, Michael: Fiery Ted Anzac Commander. Christchurch 2008. The description of Chaytor by Lieutenant-General Sir Philip Chetwode, commander of the Desert Column in 1917, was taken from Chaytor, Major-General Sir Edward Walter Clervaux. In: McGibbon, Ian (ed.) with the assistance of Goldstone, Paul: The Oxford Companion to New Zealand Military History. Auckland 2000, p. 84.

12. ↑ Challinger, Michael: Anzacs in Arkhangel. The Untold Story of Australia and the Invasion of Russia 1918–19, Prahran 2010; Burke, Keast (ed.): With Horse and Morse in Mesopotamia: The story of the Anzacs in Asia, Sydney 1927; Barber, Laurie and Lord, Cliff: Swift and Sure: A History of The Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals and Army Signalling in New Zealand, Auckland 1996; Montgomery, Ina: John Hugh Allen of the Gallant Company – A Memoir by His Sister, London 1919.

13. ↑ McGibbon, Ian: Blue Water Rationale. The Naval Defence of New Zealand 1914-1942, Wellington 1981. The most complete account of the work of the SMS Wolf in Australasian waters is provided by Guilliatt, Richard and Hohnen, Peter: The Wolf. How One German Raider Terrorised Australia and the Southern Oceans in the First World War, North Sydney 2009. A contemporary account of the work of the New Zealand Hospital Ships Maheno and Marama was compiled in Liverpool, Arthur William de Brito Savile Foljambe: The New Zealand Hospital Ship "Maheno." The First Voyage July 1915 to January 1916, Auckland 1916 and Liverpool, Arthur William de Brito Savile Foljambe: The Voyages of His Majesty's New Zealand Hospital Ships "Marama" and "Maheno". Auckland 1917-1919. See also McLean, Gavin: The White Ships. New Zealand’s First World War Hospital Ships, Wellington 2013.

14. ↑ Martyn, Errol W.: Swift to the sky: New Zealand’s military aviation history, Auckland 2010; Martyn, Errol W.: For Your Tomorrow (3 Volumes). Christchurch 1998-2008.

15. ↑ Studholme, John (compiler): New Zealand Expeditionary Force record of personal services during the war of officers, nurses and first-class warrant officers; and other facts relating to the N.Z.E.F, Wellington 1928. See also: Lawson, Will: Historic Trentham 1914-1917: The Story of a New Zealand Military Training Camp and Some Account of the Daily Round of the Troops within Its Bounds, Wellington 1917, online: http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH1Hist.html (retrieved 31 August 2016); Stanbrook, G. L. (ed.): Featherston Military Training Camp: being a record of its wonderful growth and daily operation, Auckland 1917; Frances, Neil: Safe Haven. The Untold Story of New Zealand's Largest Ever Military Camp: Featherston: 1916-1919, Masterton 2012; Frances, Neil: A Long, Long Trail: Marching over the Rimutaka Hill, 1915-1918 and the Re-enactment March, September 2015, Masterton 2015.

16. ↑ Hunter, Kate and Ross, Kirstie: Holding On To Home. New Zealand Stories and Objects of the First World War, Wellington 2014; Ferrall, Charles and Ricketts, Harry (eds.): How We Remember. New Zealanders and the First World War, Wellington 2014;Bargas, Imelda and Shoebridge, Ted: New Zealand’s First World War Heritage. Auckland 2015. For an alternative view of New Zealand’s involvement in the First World War see Eldred-Grigg, Stevan: The Great Wrong War: New Zealand Society in World War 1, Auckland 2010.

Citation

Fox, Aaron Patrick: Warfare 1914-1918 (New Zealand) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2016-09-06. DOI: 10.15463/ie1418.10959.

License

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Introduction

New Zealand’s Army of 1914

Preparations for War

The Gallipoli Campaign 1915

The New Zealand Division 1916-1919

The New Zealand Mounted Rifles in Sinai and Palestine 1916-1918

Other New Zealand Units

New Zealanders in the Royal Navy

New Zealand Airmen

The Cost of the War

Conclusion

Selected Bibliography

Citation

Content