Regions Ottoman Empire

Hierarchical View

Survey Articles (Regional)

Regional Thematic Articles

Encyclopedic Entries

See also

Survey Articles (Regional)

  • Ottoman Empire/Middle East

    By Yücel Yanıkdağ

    During the Great War, the Ottoman Empire fought on several major and minor fronts, both in the Middle East and in the Balkans. Although initially seen as a military liability by its allies and a weak … READ MORE

    Regional

Regional Thematic Articles

Encyclopedic Entries

  • Alī, Muḥammad Kurd

    By Samir Seikaly

    In 1914 Muhammad Kurd ‘Ali was Damascus’ most prominent journalist, owner and editor of the ''al-Muqtabas ''publications, leading Francophone intellectual and prolific author. Adhering to the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Arab Officers in the Ottoman Army

    By Michael Provence

    Perhaps 30 percent of the World War I Ottoman officer corps hailed from Arab regions. Such people had often been the recipients of fully subsidized, comprehensive state education. Ex-officers figured … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Arab Supporters of the Belligerent Countries

    By M. Talha Çiçek

    There were a number of Arab intellectuals who actively cooperated with the Entente and Central Powers during the Great War through their actions, writings and speeches. The entry focuses on the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople

    By Nazan Maksudyan

    This article focuses on the function of the Armenian Patriarchate of Istanbul during World War I and the activities of Patriarch Zaven I Der Yeghiayan, whose term as patriarch coincided not only with … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF)

    By Toygun Altintas

    With branches in the Ottoman Empire, Russia, and Iran, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (''Hay Heghapokhagan Dashnaktsutiun'') was the leading Armenian political party during the First World … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Army of Islam

    By Yalçın Murgul

    The Army of Islam, which was created by the order of Enver Pasha dated 5 April 1918, was a military force that performed operations in the summer of 1918 which resulted in the expansion of Ottoman … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Arslān, Shakīb, Amīr

    By Makram Rabah

    Shakib Arslan was a prominent Arab politician, polemicist, and man of letters. Arslan, an ardent supporter of the Ottoman Empire, lobbied for the maintenance of the Islamic Caliphate after World War … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Askerî Bey, Süleymân

    By Benjamin C. Fortna

    After service in the Balkans and in Libya, Süleyman Askerî was chosen by Enver Pasha to lead the “Special Organization” before World War I. Sent to Iraq to organize the defense against the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Azmi, Jemal

    By Nikos Sigalas

    Cemal Azmi was an Ottoman official who served during the Great War as governor (''vali'') of the province (''vilayet'') of Trebizond. Being the mastermind of the Armenian genocide in this province he … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Balfour Declaration

    By Maryanne A. Rhett

    The Balfour Declaration, the document that set the stage for establishing the state of Israel, was the product of months of wordsmithing and political jockeying. The evolution of its final wording … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Batum, Conference and Treaties of

    By Alexander E. Balistreri

    The Batum Conference (May 1918) and treaties ended the state of war between the Ottoman Empire and various governments of the South Caucasus. Additional treaties were signed with the North Caucasus. … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Beersheba-Gaza Line

    By M. Talha Çiçek

    The Beersheba-Gaza Line (or Defenses) are the three battles fought between the Ottoman Empire and British forces in the Gaza region of Palestine from March to November 1917 that ended Ottoman rule in … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bliss, Howard S.

    By Tylor Brand

    Howard Sweetser Bliss was the President of the Syrian Protestant College (SPC) during the war. His congenial relationship with Jamal Pasha helped to ensure the security of the college and American … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bronsart von Schellendorf, Friedrich

    By Oliver Stein

    Friedrich Bronsart von Schellendorf was a Prussian-German lieutenant general. As Chief of Staff of the Ottoman Army, he was one of the closest collaborators of Enver Pasha during the First World War. … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Çabuk, Seyit Ali

    By Tuncay Yılmazer

    Seyit Onbaşı (Corporal Seyit) is an iconic figure and symbol of the Turkish naval victory at the Dardanelles on 18 March 1915. He allegedly carried a 275 kg heavy shell to the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Caucasus Front

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    The Caucasus Front was the area where combat operations between the Russian and Ottoman Empires were conducted from October 1914 until December 1917 as part of the Caucasus Campaign, one of the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cavid Bey, Mehmed

    By James Ryan

    Mehmed Cavid Bey was born in Thessaloniki to a Sabbatean (''dönme'') family in either 1878 or 1879. After studying in his hometown, he moved to Istanbul and worked in the education ministry. Prior … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cemal Paşa, Ahmed

    By Hasan Kayalı

    Cemal Paşa belonged to the top leadership of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), which ruled the Ottoman Empire during World War I. He served as wartime minister of the navy and autocratic … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Circassian Nationalism

    By Pınar Üre

    Circassian nationalism refers to national movements among Adyghe people, a North Caucasian ethnic group. The term is also used to include other North Caucasian peoples who share historical … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Constantinople Agreement

    By Pınar Üre

    The Constantinople Agreement, alternatively known as the Straits or Istanbul Agreement, was a secret agreement concluded between Britain, Russia, and France on 18 March 1915. The most important … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Discussion: Humanitarianism

    By Peter Gatrell, Rebecca Gill, Branden Little and Elisabeth Piller

    This is the first in what it is hoped will become a series of discussion forums hosted by ''1914-1918-online''. In this discussion forum, General Editor Peter Gatrell invited contributions that … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople

    By Dimitris Kamouzis

    The persecution committed during the Great War by the Committee of Union and Progress against the Orthodox Greeks (''Rum'') of the Ottoman Empire caused significant reaction from the Ecumenical … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Empire

    By Erez Manela

    World War I was not simply a conflict among European states but a global war of empires. The fighting took place not only in Europe, but also in Africa, Asia, and across the Middle East, and it … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Enver Pasha, Ismail

    By Feroz Ahmad

    After leading the coup that brought the Committee of Union and Progress to power, Enver was appointed chief of staff and war minister. Convinced of a German victory, he decided to join World War One. … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Evrenoszade, Rahmi Bey

    By Ayşe Ozil

    Rahmi Bey was governor of Izmir during the First World War. As part of the Unionist plans for the Turkification of the region, he pursued anti-Greek policies, yet he acted in favor of the Levantines … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Faysal I, King of Iraq

    By Tariq Tell

    Faysal ibn Husayn commanded the Northern Army of the Arab Revolt and was raised to the throne of Syria in October 1918. The French invasion drove him from Damascus in April 1921. Made king of Iraq … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Gallipoli, Campaign and Battle of

    By Harold Allen Skinner Jr.

    From March 1915 to January 1916, French and British Commonwealth forces fought against the German-advised Ottoman army for control of the Dardanelles. The resulting Central Powers victory contributed … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Goeben, SMS and Breslau, SMS

    By Benjamin Miertzschke

    The flight of the German battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau from the Adriatic Sea to the Dardanelles was one of the most spectacular and memorable naval operations during the initial … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Greco-Turkish War 1919-1922

    By Elçin Macar

    The end of the First World War and the defeat of the Ottoman Army gave a historical chance to the Greek Prime Minister Venizelos, who aspired to realize the ''Megali Idea''. During the campaign to … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Hakkı, İsmail Bey

    By Malek Sharif

    İsmail Hakkı was an experienced civil servant. He collected and published detailed statistics on the population, economic activities, education, natural resources and means of transportation in his … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Hoff, Heinrich Leonhard Emanuel von

    By Mustafa Gençer

    This article is about the career of Heinrich Leonhard Emanuel von Hoff under the Ottoman state. As a German military officer, he played an active role in the local branch of Stuttgart’s German … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Humann, Hans

    By Malte Fuhrmann

    A champion of “peaceful imperialism” before the war, Humann served as an ''éminence grise'' in Turkish-German relations, helping to establish the alliance and deterring criticism of genocide. He … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Husayn ibn Ali, King of Hejaz

    By Tariq Tell

    Husayn ibn Ali launched the Arab Revolt in alliance with Great Britain. His relations with his European allies remained uneasy and deteriorated further when a unified Arab state under his rule failed … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Ḥusayn Kāmil, Sultan of Egypt

    By Kyle J. Anderson

    Husayn Kamil was the first sultan of Egypt after the declaration of the British protectorate, from 1914-1917. After ascending to the throne on 18 December 1914, he survived two assassination attempts … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Husayn-McMahon Correspondence

    By Tariq Tell

    The Husayn-McMahon Correspondence mapped out with studied ambiguity the terms of the wartime alliance between Great Britain and Hashemites that underpinned the Great Arab Revolt (July 1916-October … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Italo-Turkish War 1911-1912

    By Rachel Simon

    The Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912) took place mainly in Ottoman Libya following Italy’s invasion, not taking into consideration the fierce Ottoman and indigenous … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Jabotinsky, Vladimir

    By Arie M. Dubnov and Brian Horowitz

    Russian-Jewish author, playwright, journalist, orator, and political activist; co-founder of the Zion Mule Corps (1915-16) and the Jewish Legion (1917-21, the unofficial name of the 38th Battalion of … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Jihad, Holy War (Ottoman Empire)

    By Tilman Lüdke

    Between 1914 and 1918, both the Ottoman Empire and Germany engaged in a propaganda campaign to foster jihad amongst the world’s Muslims. While the Ottomans – concentrating more on Muslims on the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Karavangelis, Germanos

    By Nikos Sigalas

    Germanos Karavangelis was the most radical proponent of Greek nationalism among the Christian Orthodox clergy of the early 20th century Ottoman Empire. Using his religious authority as a … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Killigil, Nuri

    By Alp Yenen

    Nuri Pasha, younger brother of Enver Pasha, contributed to Ottoman special operations in Libya against Italy before and during World War I. In 1918, he became the commander of the Islamic Army of the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Kreß von Kressenstein, Friedrich Freiherr

    By Oliver Stein

    Kreß von Kressenstein was a Bavarian-German officer who, as member of the German military mission in the Ottoman Empire, led the offensives on the Suez Canal and the defense of Gaza. In June 1918, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Kuşçubaşı, Eşref Sencer

    By Benjamin C. Fortna

    The child of Circassian refugees, Eşref Kuşçubaşı attended military schools before becoming a key “self-sacrificing officer” under İsmail Enver in the Special Organization (''Teşkilât-ı … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Kut al-Amara

    By Gökhan Çetinsaya

    The Siege of Kut al-Amara between 3 December 1915 and 29 April 1916 is an important episode of the war between the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain. The surrender of approximately 13,000 … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Kut, Halil

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    Halil Kut was an Ottoman regional governor and military commander. He is best known for his role in the victory over the British forces at Kut al-Amara and complicity in the carrying out of a … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Labour Battalions (Ottoman Empire/Middle East)

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    Ottoman labour battalions were a form of forced labour in lieu of regular military service. The conscription into these units during and after the war has come to be identified with removal from … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Martyrs/Separatists, Syrian and Lebanese

    By M. Talha Çiçek

    The terms "martyrs" and "separatists" refer to the decentralist Arabists of Syria who were executed by Cemal Pasha during World War I as a result of their alleged plot to separate the Syrian land … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Medina, Siege of

    By Hasan Kayalı

    During the Arab Revolt in 1916 forces loyal to Sharif Husayn surrounded Medina and restricted its communications. Ottoman troops led by Fahreddin Pasha defended the town beyond the Armistice of … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Mediterranean Theater, Naval Operations

    By Paul G. Halpern

    The real naval war in the Mediterranean turned out to be a struggle against German and Austrian submarines and not a classic battle between major … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Mobilization (Ottoman Empire/Middle East)

    By Charalampos Minasidis

    During the Great War, the Ottoman state mobilized its citizens under two war policies, soldiering and provisioning, which led to a disastrous outcome. A “tacit” contract was developed between … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Morgenthau, Henry, Sr.

    By Harold Allen Skinner Jr.

    Naturalized American lawyer, real estate investor, and Jewish activist, Henry Morgenthau Senior served as United States Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1913-1916. During 1915-1916 Morgenthau … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Mudros, Armistice of

    By James Ryan

    The Armistice of Mudros was signed on 31 October 1918 between the Ottoman government and a British-led Allied delegation aboard the ''HMS Agamemnon'' in the port of the Greek-held island of Lemnos, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Near East Relief

    By Tylor Brand

    Near East Relief was formed in 1915 to address the catastrophic humanitarian consequences of the Armenian genocide. By the end of the war, the organization had transformed into a vast aid campaign … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Orphans (Ottoman Empire/Middle East)

    By Tylor Brand

    War, massacres, displacement, famine and economic crisis left over 100,000 children orphaned across the Ottoman Empire during WWI. Though most orphans were left to fend for themselves, as their … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Ozanian, Antranik

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    Antranik Ozanian, commonly known as Antranik (pronounced Andranik in the Eastern Armenian variant), was a military leader, statesman, political and public activist, and freedom fighter, who is … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Pan-Islamism (Ottoman Empire)

    By Alp Yenen

    Pan-Islamism was one of the major geopolitical and civilizational concepts of the First World War. The German-Ottoman alliance campaigned for Muslim solidarity against European colonialism both by … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Panturkism

    By Pınar Üre

    Pan-Turkism is the nationalist ideology that emphasizes the common ethnic, cultural, and linguistic roots of Turkic peoples living across Eurasia. Developed as a social and political movement among … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Pasha, Cavit

    By Mesut Uyar

    A talented administrator but a mediocre general, Cavit Pasha served in various parts of the empire, including commander of Iraq during the first year of the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Pasha, Esat

    By Mesut Uyar

    Esat Pasha played a key role during the Gallipoli campaign and achieved renown as a trainer, military intellectual and the defender of … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Pasha, Talat

    By Hans-Lukas Kieser

    A first father of modern Turkey before Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and the driving force of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) during the war, Talat organized the removal of Armenian and other … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Red Crescent (Hilal-i Ahmer)

    By Esther Möller

    The Red Crescent is one of two symbols of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and the name of Red Crescent societies in countries with a majority Muslim population. During World War I, the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Reshid, Mehmed

    By Hans-Lukas Kieser

    A founder of the Committee of Union and Progress, Dr Reshid excelled during World War I as a proactive governor of Diyarbekir. He was responsible for exterminating most Christians, including … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Role of German Officers in the Gallipoli Campaign

    By Thomas P. Iredale

    Serving alongside their Ottoman brothers-in-arms, an estimated 500 German officers and men took part in the fighting at Gallipoli. Why were they there? This article provides a brief … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Russian Occupation of the Eastern Ottoman Empire

    By Alexander E. Balistreri

    The Russian occupation of the eastern Ottoman Empire entailed the wartime administration of captured territory comprising approximately 95,000 square kilometers. A military governorate-general was … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Said Nursi

    By Abdürrahim Özer

    Said Nursi was a prominent Kurdish intellectual. He fervently supported constitutionalism and sought to improve the Kurds’ condition during the late Ottoman Empire. After World War I and the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Sarıkamış, Battle of

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    The Battle of Sarıkamış, from 22 December 1914 to 17 January 1915, was a major engagement between the Ottoman and Russian armies on the Caucasus Front. The outcome of the battle resulted in a … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Sarre, Friedrich Paul Theodor

    By Malte Fuhrmann

    The renowned archaeologist Friedrich Sarre used his local knowledge to support the German-Ottoman war effort in western Persia in various leading functions. After the war, he sheltered the fugitive … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Shakir, Bahaeddin

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    Bahaeddin Şakir was the reorganizer of the Committee of Union and Progress, a political party that became the government of the Ottoman Empire during the war. As a major functionary of the Special … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Sykes-Picot Agreement

    By Tariq Tell

    In dividing the Fertile Crescent into British and French spheres, the wartime Sykes-Picot Agreement laid the foundation of the colonial division of the region ratified at the St. Remo (1920) and … READ MORE

    Entry

  • The Soldier's Sister

    By Charalampos Minasidis

    Greece’s Long Great War witnessed the mobilization of its young women as caretakers of its armed community. The “sisters” were volunteer pen pals that battled soldiers’ alienation and boredom … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Wangenheim, Hans von

    By Christos Bouris

    Baron Hans von Wangenheim was the German ambassador to the Ottoman capital between 1912 and … READ MORE

    Entry

  • War Poetry

    By Jane Potter

    This article examines the concept of war poetry and considers the range of poetic responses generated by the Great War from an international … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Yildirim Army Group

    By Odile Moreau

    The Yildirim (“lightning” or “blitz”) Army Group was a special Ottoman-German army group during World War I. It was largely Ottoman, though commanded by Germans, and operated in Ottoman … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Yudenich, Nikolaĭ Nikolayevich

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    Nikolaĭ Yudenich was one of the most successful Russian commanders in World War One. He demonstrated admirable consistency in achieving victories on the Caucasus Front. During the Russian Civil War, … READ MORE

    Entry

See also

  • Alliance System 1914

    By Günther Kronenbitter

    Alliances were an important feature of the international system on the eve of World War I. The formation of rival blocs of Great Powers has previously considered a major cause of the outbreak of war … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Armenian Genocide

    By Ronald Grigor Suny

    In early 1915 the Young Turk government of the Ottoman Empire decided to deport hundreds of thousands of Armenians and Assyrians from their homes into distant parts of the Empire, eventually into the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Arms Race prior to 1914, Armament Policy

    By Eric Brose

    New weapons produced during the Industrial Revolution in the late 1800s heightened existing tensions among European nations as countries strove to outpace their enemies technologically. This … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Atrocities

    By Alan Kramer

    The term "atrocity" describes an act of violence condemned by contemporaries as a breach of morality or the laws of war. "Atrocities" are culturally constructed; by 1914, an international discourse … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Bereavement and Mourning

    By Manfred Hettling and Tino Schölz

    In the modern era, new forms of mourning and meaning-making for fallen soldiers emerged. The human losses of the First World War were largely mourned, honoured and remembered within … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Battlefield Tourism)

    By Romain Fathi

    The centenary of the First World War has been a catalyst for battlefield tourism. The creation of new museums, memorials, statues, commemorative trails and the like has strengthened the Great War’s … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Computer Games)

    By Chris Kempshall

    The First World War centenary saw an emergence of new portrayals of the conflict in computer games. These new games sought either to tell new stories of war and conflict during the time period or to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Education, Pedagogy, Youth Programs)

    By Catriona Pennell

    The centenary of the First World War revealed palpable anxieties around a loss of connection to an event that was now 100 years old and without any living survivors. As a result, a good degree of … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Historiography)

    By Jost Dülffer

    Innovative historical scholarship played an important role in the shaping of memory during the centenary of the First World War. It guided international public memory, was part of it and as such … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Civilian Morale

    By Matteo Ermacora

    This article deals with civilian morale during the First World War. Between 1915 and 1918, governments “discovered” the importance of civilian morale and developed vast systems of surveillance to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Colonial Empires after the War/Decolonization

    By James E. Kitchen

    The First World War saw the colonial empires of France and Britain mobilised to aid European and imperial war efforts. This mobilisation and the difficulties of demobilisation placed considerable … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Controversy: The Media's Responsibility for Crises and Conflicts in the Age of Imperialism

    By Peter Geiss

    The article discusses the role of the media in the complex international process leading to the First World War with a focus on the press of the great powers. Recent research has shown that the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Drugs

    By Łukasz Kamieński

    Throughout history, intoxicants were an important part of the war experience. The First World War was by no means an exception in that respect: its main “war drugs” were alcohol (mostly beer, … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Extra-European Theatres of War

    By Michelle Moyd

    The extra-European theatres of World War I have received far less scholarly attention than the war in Europe. This state of affairs is hardly surprising given the sheer magnitude of the Western Front … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Food and Nutrition

    By Emmanuelle Cronier

    During the First World War, food became a major issue for military and civilian matters. This contribution aims to discuss the food situation in the belligerent countries in connection with global … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Governments, Parliaments and Parties

    By Torsten Oppelland

    One sees a wide range of political regimes from a democratic republic with universal male suffrage (France) to parliamentary, constitutional, or even oligarchical monarchies in the countries that … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Health, Disease, Mortality; Demographic Effects

    By Doina Anca Cretu

    The rapid spread of epidemics ravaged military personnel and civilians in and outside Europe’s warzones during the Great War. Further, the great influenza pandemic of 1918-1919 became a global … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Imperialism

    By Boris Barth

    This article focuses on the extent to which imperialism contributed to the outbreak of the First World War. The first part describes the emergence of specific imperialist cultures and attitudes in … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • International Law and the Laws of War

    By Jean H. Quataert

    The article examines international efforts to curb states’ war-making prerogatives in the second half of the “long” 19th century. It captures new humanitarian sentiments circulating … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Nationalism

    By John Paul Newman

    This article offers an overview of the progress of nationalism and the national idea starting with its origins as a mass political programme during the French Revolution and tracing its passage up to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Naval Warfare

    By Eric W. Osborne

    All of the great belligerent states of World War I were naval powers and engaged in operations around the globe. While the course of the war did not unfold as predicted by naval officials, it did … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Negotiating and Mediating Conduct of War

    By Matthew Stibbe

    Many issues surrounding the conduct of war in the years 1914-1918 were impervious to international negotiation or mediation, due either to a complete lack of consensus or to an absence of trust and … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Non-European Soldiers

    By Richard Fogarty and Andrew Tait Jarboe

    This article examines the use by Great Britain and France of colonial subjects from their empires to fight during the First World War. Other Great War soldiers hailed from locations outside of … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Post-war Societies

    By Richard Bessel

    The First World War caused unprecedented disruption to societies across the globe, from Western and (especially) Central and Eastern Europe to East Africa. While many survivors could celebrate an end … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Prisoners of War

    By Heather Jones

    The First World War marked the shift from a 19th century, relatively ''ad hoc'' management of prisoners of war, to the 20th century’s sophisticated prisoner of war camp … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Property Rights and Economic Nationalism

    By Daniela L. Caglioti

    This article explores the policies adopted and implemented against enemy property from the beginning of the Great War to the signing of the peace treaties in Europe. Breaking a long-standing … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Refugees

    By Peter Gatrell

    This article addresses the scale of wartime population displacement in continental Europe, the relief efforts made on behalf of refugees, their impact on host communities, and the cultural … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Revolutions

    By Chad R. Fulwider

    This article surveys the various movements toward social, national, and political revolution that emerged during and in the wake of World War I. The Russian revolutions of 1917 serve as the first … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Shifts and Tensions in Ethnic/National Groups

    By Borislav Chernev

    This article examines the changing dynamics of national tensions in the Habsburg, Romanov, and Ottoman empires during three distinct phases of the Great War. The outbreak and early months of the war … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Social Conflict

    By Claire Morelon

    This article deals with the nature of social conflict during the war. The length of the conflict and growing food shortages on the home front strained relations between individuals and between social … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Social Costs of War

    By Kimberly A. Redding

    This article explores how the anticipation, reality, and memory of sacrifice informed experiences and legacies of World War I. Drawing on representative examples from multiple nations, I suggest that … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Churches

    By Patrick J. Houlihan

    Reflecting current historiography, this article focuses primarily on Christian churches centered in the main European theater of the Great War, including more global interactions with the other … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Military Collapse of the Central Powers

    By Graydon A. Tunstall

    October 1918 witnessed the collapse of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies, both greatly affected by war-weariness and starvation. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy lost any remaining loyalty from its … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Paris Peace Conference and its Consequences

    By Alan Sharp

    This article offers an overview of peacemaking after the First World War from the armistices of 1918 until 1923. It considers the outcomes of the five Parisian treaties (Versailles, Saint-Germain and … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Transportation and Logistics

    By Ian M. Brown

    The Great War witnessed mass armies battling with modern, quick-firing weapons systems and using consumables of all kinds - ammunition, food, water, soldiers - at rates that had not been seen before. … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Urban Societies and Cities

    By Andrew Lees

    Cities — with their comparatively large and dense but also vulnerable populations — went from being theaters of mass mobilization in favor of the political status quo to being sites of domestic … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • War in the Balkans

    By Richard C. Hall

    The Balkan Wars erupted in South Eastern Europe in October 1912. Fighting continued intermittently in the region until July 1914. As the First World War expanded into much of Europe, fighting … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • War Losses

    By Antoine Prost

    Military sources provide the primary statistics of war losses and casualties during World War I. In order to review and eventually revise their figures, one must understand how military statistics … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Women War Reporters

    By Stephanie Seul

    Female war reporters from belligerent and neutral countries were present in the major war theatres in Europe and the Middle East throughout 1914 to 1918. While admission of journalists to the war … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Xenophobia

    By Thomas Brodie

    This article provides an overview of xenophobia during the First World War - namely, the ways in which the conflict was justified and sustained by the growth of hatred for external enemies, and … READ MORE

    Thematic

Survey Articles (Regional)

  • Ottoman Empire/Middle East

    By Yücel Yanıkdağ

    During the Great War, the Ottoman Empire fought on several major and minor fronts, both in the Middle East and in the Balkans. Although initially seen as a military liability by its allies and a weak … READ MORE

    Regional

Regional Thematic Articles

Encyclopedic Entries

  • Alī, Muḥammad Kurd

    By Samir Seikaly

    In 1914 Muhammad Kurd ‘Ali was Damascus’ most prominent journalist, owner and editor of the ''al-Muqtabas ''publications, leading Francophone intellectual and prolific author. Adhering to the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Arab Officers in the Ottoman Army

    By Michael Provence

    Perhaps 30 percent of the World War I Ottoman officer corps hailed from Arab regions. Such people had often been the recipients of fully subsidized, comprehensive state education. Ex-officers figured … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Arab Supporters of the Belligerent Countries

    By M. Talha Çiçek

    There were a number of Arab intellectuals who actively cooperated with the Entente and Central Powers during the Great War through their actions, writings and speeches. The entry focuses on the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople

    By Nazan Maksudyan

    This article focuses on the function of the Armenian Patriarchate of Istanbul during World War I and the activities of Patriarch Zaven I Der Yeghiayan, whose term as patriarch coincided not only with … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF)

    By Toygun Altintas

    With branches in the Ottoman Empire, Russia, and Iran, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (''Hay Heghapokhagan Dashnaktsutiun'') was the leading Armenian political party during the First World … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Army of Islam

    By Yalçın Murgul

    The Army of Islam, which was created by the order of Enver Pasha dated 5 April 1918, was a military force that performed operations in the summer of 1918 which resulted in the expansion of Ottoman … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Arslān, Shakīb, Amīr

    By Makram Rabah

    Shakib Arslan was a prominent Arab politician, polemicist, and man of letters. Arslan, an ardent supporter of the Ottoman Empire, lobbied for the maintenance of the Islamic Caliphate after World War … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Askerî Bey, Süleymân

    By Benjamin C. Fortna

    After service in the Balkans and in Libya, Süleyman Askerî was chosen by Enver Pasha to lead the “Special Organization” before World War I. Sent to Iraq to organize the defense against the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Azmi, Jemal

    By Nikos Sigalas

    Cemal Azmi was an Ottoman official who served during the Great War as governor (''vali'') of the province (''vilayet'') of Trebizond. Being the mastermind of the Armenian genocide in this province he … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Balfour Declaration

    By Maryanne A. Rhett

    The Balfour Declaration, the document that set the stage for establishing the state of Israel, was the product of months of wordsmithing and political jockeying. The evolution of its final wording … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Batum, Conference and Treaties of

    By Alexander E. Balistreri

    The Batum Conference (May 1918) and treaties ended the state of war between the Ottoman Empire and various governments of the South Caucasus. Additional treaties were signed with the North Caucasus. … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Beersheba-Gaza Line

    By M. Talha Çiçek

    The Beersheba-Gaza Line (or Defenses) are the three battles fought between the Ottoman Empire and British forces in the Gaza region of Palestine from March to November 1917 that ended Ottoman rule in … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bliss, Howard S.

    By Tylor Brand

    Howard Sweetser Bliss was the President of the Syrian Protestant College (SPC) during the war. His congenial relationship with Jamal Pasha helped to ensure the security of the college and American … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bronsart von Schellendorf, Friedrich

    By Oliver Stein

    Friedrich Bronsart von Schellendorf was a Prussian-German lieutenant general. As Chief of Staff of the Ottoman Army, he was one of the closest collaborators of Enver Pasha during the First World War. … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Çabuk, Seyit Ali

    By Tuncay Yılmazer

    Seyit Onbaşı (Corporal Seyit) is an iconic figure and symbol of the Turkish naval victory at the Dardanelles on 18 March 1915. He allegedly carried a 275 kg heavy shell to the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Caucasus Front

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    The Caucasus Front was the area where combat operations between the Russian and Ottoman Empires were conducted from October 1914 until December 1917 as part of the Caucasus Campaign, one of the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cavid Bey, Mehmed

    By James Ryan

    Mehmed Cavid Bey was born in Thessaloniki to a Sabbatean (''dönme'') family in either 1878 or 1879. After studying in his hometown, he moved to Istanbul and worked in the education ministry. Prior … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cemal Paşa, Ahmed

    By Hasan Kayalı

    Cemal Paşa belonged to the top leadership of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), which ruled the Ottoman Empire during World War I. He served as wartime minister of the navy and autocratic … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Circassian Nationalism

    By Pınar Üre

    Circassian nationalism refers to national movements among Adyghe people, a North Caucasian ethnic group. The term is also used to include other North Caucasian peoples who share historical … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Constantinople Agreement

    By Pınar Üre

    The Constantinople Agreement, alternatively known as the Straits or Istanbul Agreement, was a secret agreement concluded between Britain, Russia, and France on 18 March 1915. The most important … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Discussion: Humanitarianism

    By Peter Gatrell, Rebecca Gill, Branden Little and Elisabeth Piller

    This is the first in what it is hoped will become a series of discussion forums hosted by ''1914-1918-online''. In this discussion forum, General Editor Peter Gatrell invited contributions that … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople

    By Dimitris Kamouzis

    The persecution committed during the Great War by the Committee of Union and Progress against the Orthodox Greeks (''Rum'') of the Ottoman Empire caused significant reaction from the Ecumenical … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Empire

    By Erez Manela

    World War I was not simply a conflict among European states but a global war of empires. The fighting took place not only in Europe, but also in Africa, Asia, and across the Middle East, and it … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Enver Pasha, Ismail

    By Feroz Ahmad

    After leading the coup that brought the Committee of Union and Progress to power, Enver was appointed chief of staff and war minister. Convinced of a German victory, he decided to join World War One. … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Evrenoszade, Rahmi Bey

    By Ayşe Ozil

    Rahmi Bey was governor of Izmir during the First World War. As part of the Unionist plans for the Turkification of the region, he pursued anti-Greek policies, yet he acted in favor of the Levantines … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Faysal I, King of Iraq

    By Tariq Tell

    Faysal ibn Husayn commanded the Northern Army of the Arab Revolt and was raised to the throne of Syria in October 1918. The French invasion drove him from Damascus in April 1921. Made king of Iraq … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Gallipoli, Campaign and Battle of

    By Harold Allen Skinner Jr.

    From March 1915 to January 1916, French and British Commonwealth forces fought against the German-advised Ottoman army for control of the Dardanelles. The resulting Central Powers victory contributed … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Goeben, SMS and Breslau, SMS

    By Benjamin Miertzschke

    The flight of the German battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau from the Adriatic Sea to the Dardanelles was one of the most spectacular and memorable naval operations during the initial … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Greco-Turkish War 1919-1922

    By Elçin Macar

    The end of the First World War and the defeat of the Ottoman Army gave a historical chance to the Greek Prime Minister Venizelos, who aspired to realize the ''Megali Idea''. During the campaign to … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Hakkı, İsmail Bey

    By Malek Sharif

    İsmail Hakkı was an experienced civil servant. He collected and published detailed statistics on the population, economic activities, education, natural resources and means of transportation in his … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Hoff, Heinrich Leonhard Emanuel von

    By Mustafa Gençer

    This article is about the career of Heinrich Leonhard Emanuel von Hoff under the Ottoman state. As a German military officer, he played an active role in the local branch of Stuttgart’s German … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Humann, Hans

    By Malte Fuhrmann

    A champion of “peaceful imperialism” before the war, Humann served as an ''éminence grise'' in Turkish-German relations, helping to establish the alliance and deterring criticism of genocide. He … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Husayn ibn Ali, King of Hejaz

    By Tariq Tell

    Husayn ibn Ali launched the Arab Revolt in alliance with Great Britain. His relations with his European allies remained uneasy and deteriorated further when a unified Arab state under his rule failed … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Ḥusayn Kāmil, Sultan of Egypt

    By Kyle J. Anderson

    Husayn Kamil was the first sultan of Egypt after the declaration of the British protectorate, from 1914-1917. After ascending to the throne on 18 December 1914, he survived two assassination attempts … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Husayn-McMahon Correspondence

    By Tariq Tell

    The Husayn-McMahon Correspondence mapped out with studied ambiguity the terms of the wartime alliance between Great Britain and Hashemites that underpinned the Great Arab Revolt (July 1916-October … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Italo-Turkish War 1911-1912

    By Rachel Simon

    The Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912) took place mainly in Ottoman Libya following Italy’s invasion, not taking into consideration the fierce Ottoman and indigenous … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Jabotinsky, Vladimir

    By Arie M. Dubnov and Brian Horowitz

    Russian-Jewish author, playwright, journalist, orator, and political activist; co-founder of the Zion Mule Corps (1915-16) and the Jewish Legion (1917-21, the unofficial name of the 38th Battalion of … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Jihad, Holy War (Ottoman Empire)

    By Tilman Lüdke

    Between 1914 and 1918, both the Ottoman Empire and Germany engaged in a propaganda campaign to foster jihad amongst the world’s Muslims. While the Ottomans – concentrating more on Muslims on the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Karavangelis, Germanos

    By Nikos Sigalas

    Germanos Karavangelis was the most radical proponent of Greek nationalism among the Christian Orthodox clergy of the early 20th century Ottoman Empire. Using his religious authority as a … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Killigil, Nuri

    By Alp Yenen

    Nuri Pasha, younger brother of Enver Pasha, contributed to Ottoman special operations in Libya against Italy before and during World War I. In 1918, he became the commander of the Islamic Army of the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Kreß von Kressenstein, Friedrich Freiherr

    By Oliver Stein

    Kreß von Kressenstein was a Bavarian-German officer who, as member of the German military mission in the Ottoman Empire, led the offensives on the Suez Canal and the defense of Gaza. In June 1918, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Kuşçubaşı, Eşref Sencer

    By Benjamin C. Fortna

    The child of Circassian refugees, Eşref Kuşçubaşı attended military schools before becoming a key “self-sacrificing officer” under İsmail Enver in the Special Organization (''Teşkilât-ı … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Kut al-Amara

    By Gökhan Çetinsaya

    The Siege of Kut al-Amara between 3 December 1915 and 29 April 1916 is an important episode of the war between the Ottoman Empire and Great Britain. The surrender of approximately 13,000 … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Kut, Halil

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    Halil Kut was an Ottoman regional governor and military commander. He is best known for his role in the victory over the British forces at Kut al-Amara and complicity in the carrying out of a … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Labour Battalions (Ottoman Empire/Middle East)

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    Ottoman labour battalions were a form of forced labour in lieu of regular military service. The conscription into these units during and after the war has come to be identified with removal from … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Martyrs/Separatists, Syrian and Lebanese

    By M. Talha Çiçek

    The terms "martyrs" and "separatists" refer to the decentralist Arabists of Syria who were executed by Cemal Pasha during World War I as a result of their alleged plot to separate the Syrian land … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Medina, Siege of

    By Hasan Kayalı

    During the Arab Revolt in 1916 forces loyal to Sharif Husayn surrounded Medina and restricted its communications. Ottoman troops led by Fahreddin Pasha defended the town beyond the Armistice of … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Mediterranean Theater, Naval Operations

    By Paul G. Halpern

    The real naval war in the Mediterranean turned out to be a struggle against German and Austrian submarines and not a classic battle between major … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Mobilization (Ottoman Empire/Middle East)

    By Charalampos Minasidis

    During the Great War, the Ottoman state mobilized its citizens under two war policies, soldiering and provisioning, which led to a disastrous outcome. A “tacit” contract was developed between … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Morgenthau, Henry, Sr.

    By Harold Allen Skinner Jr.

    Naturalized American lawyer, real estate investor, and Jewish activist, Henry Morgenthau Senior served as United States Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1913-1916. During 1915-1916 Morgenthau … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Mudros, Armistice of

    By James Ryan

    The Armistice of Mudros was signed on 31 October 1918 between the Ottoman government and a British-led Allied delegation aboard the ''HMS Agamemnon'' in the port of the Greek-held island of Lemnos, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Near East Relief

    By Tylor Brand

    Near East Relief was formed in 1915 to address the catastrophic humanitarian consequences of the Armenian genocide. By the end of the war, the organization had transformed into a vast aid campaign … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Orphans (Ottoman Empire/Middle East)

    By Tylor Brand

    War, massacres, displacement, famine and economic crisis left over 100,000 children orphaned across the Ottoman Empire during WWI. Though most orphans were left to fend for themselves, as their … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Ozanian, Antranik

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    Antranik Ozanian, commonly known as Antranik (pronounced Andranik in the Eastern Armenian variant), was a military leader, statesman, political and public activist, and freedom fighter, who is … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Pan-Islamism (Ottoman Empire)

    By Alp Yenen

    Pan-Islamism was one of the major geopolitical and civilizational concepts of the First World War. The German-Ottoman alliance campaigned for Muslim solidarity against European colonialism both by … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Panturkism

    By Pınar Üre

    Pan-Turkism is the nationalist ideology that emphasizes the common ethnic, cultural, and linguistic roots of Turkic peoples living across Eurasia. Developed as a social and political movement among … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Pasha, Cavit

    By Mesut Uyar

    A talented administrator but a mediocre general, Cavit Pasha served in various parts of the empire, including commander of Iraq during the first year of the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Pasha, Esat

    By Mesut Uyar

    Esat Pasha played a key role during the Gallipoli campaign and achieved renown as a trainer, military intellectual and the defender of … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Pasha, Talat

    By Hans-Lukas Kieser

    A first father of modern Turkey before Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and the driving force of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) during the war, Talat organized the removal of Armenian and other … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Red Crescent (Hilal-i Ahmer)

    By Esther Möller

    The Red Crescent is one of two symbols of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and the name of Red Crescent societies in countries with a majority Muslim population. During World War I, the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Reshid, Mehmed

    By Hans-Lukas Kieser

    A founder of the Committee of Union and Progress, Dr Reshid excelled during World War I as a proactive governor of Diyarbekir. He was responsible for exterminating most Christians, including … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Role of German Officers in the Gallipoli Campaign

    By Thomas P. Iredale

    Serving alongside their Ottoman brothers-in-arms, an estimated 500 German officers and men took part in the fighting at Gallipoli. Why were they there? This article provides a brief … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Russian Occupation of the Eastern Ottoman Empire

    By Alexander E. Balistreri

    The Russian occupation of the eastern Ottoman Empire entailed the wartime administration of captured territory comprising approximately 95,000 square kilometers. A military governorate-general was … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Said Nursi

    By Abdürrahim Özer

    Said Nursi was a prominent Kurdish intellectual. He fervently supported constitutionalism and sought to improve the Kurds’ condition during the late Ottoman Empire. After World War I and the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Sarıkamış, Battle of

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    The Battle of Sarıkamış, from 22 December 1914 to 17 January 1915, was a major engagement between the Ottoman and Russian armies on the Caucasus Front. The outcome of the battle resulted in a … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Sarre, Friedrich Paul Theodor

    By Malte Fuhrmann

    The renowned archaeologist Friedrich Sarre used his local knowledge to support the German-Ottoman war effort in western Persia in various leading functions. After the war, he sheltered the fugitive … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Shakir, Bahaeddin

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    Bahaeddin Şakir was the reorganizer of the Committee of Union and Progress, a political party that became the government of the Ottoman Empire during the war. As a major functionary of the Special … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Sykes-Picot Agreement

    By Tariq Tell

    In dividing the Fertile Crescent into British and French spheres, the wartime Sykes-Picot Agreement laid the foundation of the colonial division of the region ratified at the St. Remo (1920) and … READ MORE

    Entry

  • The Soldier's Sister

    By Charalampos Minasidis

    Greece’s Long Great War witnessed the mobilization of its young women as caretakers of its armed community. The “sisters” were volunteer pen pals that battled soldiers’ alienation and boredom … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Wangenheim, Hans von

    By Christos Bouris

    Baron Hans von Wangenheim was the German ambassador to the Ottoman capital between 1912 and … READ MORE

    Entry

  • War Poetry

    By Jane Potter

    This article examines the concept of war poetry and considers the range of poetic responses generated by the Great War from an international … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Yildirim Army Group

    By Odile Moreau

    The Yildirim (“lightning” or “blitz”) Army Group was a special Ottoman-German army group during World War I. It was largely Ottoman, though commanded by Germans, and operated in Ottoman … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Yudenich, Nikolaĭ Nikolayevich

    By Tigran Martirosyan

    Nikolaĭ Yudenich was one of the most successful Russian commanders in World War One. He demonstrated admirable consistency in achieving victories on the Caucasus Front. During the Russian Civil War, … READ MORE

    Entry
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