Regions Eastern Europe
Survey Articles (Regional)
Regional Thematic Articles
- Bereavement and Mourning (Russian Empire)
- Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Russian Empire)
- Centenary (Belarus)
- Centenary (Poland)
- Centenary (Poland)
- Centenary (Russia)
- Centenary (Ukraine)
- Civil-Military Relations during World War I (Russian Empire)
- Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen (East Central Europe)
- Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen (Russian Empire)
- Film/Cinema (East Central Europe)
- Film/Cinema (Russian Empire)
- Food and Nutrition (East Central Europe)
- Food and Nutrition (Russian Empire)
- Governments, Parliaments and Parties; Political Movements and Protostate Formation (East Central Europe)
- Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Russian Empire)
- Historiography 1918-Today (East Central Europe)
- Historiography 1918-Today (Russian Empire)
- International Responses to the Russian Civil War (Russian Empire)
- Jewish Responses to the War (East Central Europe)
- Labour Movements and Strikes (East Central Europe)
- Labour Movements, Trade Unions and Strikes (Russian Empire)
- Labour (Russian Empire)
- Literature (East Central Europe)
- Literature (Russian Empire)
- National Minorities (East Central Europe)
- Occupation during and after the War (Austria-Hungary)
- Occupation during and after the War (East Central Europe)
- Occupation during and after the War (Russian Empire)
- Organization of War Economies (Russian Empire)
- Polish War Myths (East Central Europe)
- Post-war Agrarian Economic Policies (East Central Europe)
- Post-war Economies (East Central Europe)
- Post-war Economies (Russian Empire)
- Post-war Military Action and Violence (East Central Europe)
- Post-war Societies (East Central Europe)
- Post-war Societies (Russian Empire)
- Press/Journalism (East Central Europe)
- Press/Journalism (Russian Empire)
- Pre-war Military Planning (Russian Empire)
- Prisoners of War (East Central Europe)
- Prisoners of War (Russian Empire)
- Propaganda at Home and Abroad (East Central Europe)
- Propaganda at Home (Russian Empire)
- Revolutions (East Central Europe)
- Revolutions (Russian Empire)
- Science and Technology (Russian Empire)
- Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (East Central Europe)
- Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Russian Empire)
- War Aims and War Aims Discussions (East Central Europe)
- War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Russian Empire)
- Warfare 1914-1918 (East Central Europe)
- Warfare 1914-1918 (Russian Empire)
- War Finance (Russian Empire)
- War Losses (Russian Empire)
- Women's Mobilization for War (East Central Europe)
- Women's Mobilization for War (Russian Empire)
Encyclopedic Entries
- Alekseyev, Mikhail Vasilʹevich
- Alexandra, Empress, consort of Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia
- Antisemitism and Pogroms in the Military (Russian Empire)
- Army of Islam
- Azerbaijan
- Baku, Battle of
- Baltenregiment
- Baltische Landeswehr
- Barbed Wire
- Belarus
- Bloch, Jan Gotlib
- Bloch, Jan Gotlib
- Brändström, Elsa
- Brusilov, Alekseĭ Alekseevich
- Cēsis, Battle of
- Chinese Workers in Russia
- Circassian Nationalism
- Cossacks
- Czechoslovak Legions (Russian Empire)
- Daszyński, Ignacy
- Decree on Peace
- Denikin, Anton Ivanovich
- Discussion: Humanitarianism
- Dmowski, Roman
- Dual Power
- Duma
- Emigration (Russian Empire)
- Empire
- Expanding Bullets
- Fear
- Finnish Civil War 1918
- Forts
- Gabrys, Juozas
- General Headquarters (Russian Empire)
- Georgia
- Grigorovich, Ivan Konstantinovich
- Gurko, Vasiliĭ Iosifovich
- Haller, Józef
- Independence Wars (Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia)
- Jabotinsky, Vladimir
- Jäger Movement
- July Crisis 1917 (Russian Empire)
- Kerenskii, Aleksandr Fedorovich
- Kolchak, Aleksandr Vasil'evich
- Kornilov, Lavr Georgievich
- Kostiuchnówka, Battle of
- La Courtine, Mutiny of
- Laidoner, Johan
- Latvian Riflemen
- Lemberg
- Lenin, Vladimir Il’ich
- Machine Gun
- Makhno, Nestor Ivanovich
- Mannerheim, Carl Gustaf Emil
- Mili︠u︡kov, Pavel Nikolaevich
- Muslim Soldiers in the Russian Army
- Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia
- Nikolaĭ Nikolaevich, Grand Duke of Russia
- Offensive, Gorlice-Tarnow
- Paderewski, Ignacy Jan
- Päts, Konstantin
- Peasant Uprisings/Tambovshchina
- Piłsudski, Józef
- Polish Army in France
- Polish-German Border Conflict
- Polish Legionaries Union
- Polish Legions
- Polish-Lithuanian Border Conflict
- Polish National Units in Russia
- Polish Paramilitary Organisations before 1914
- Polish-Soviet War 1920-1921
- Polish-Ukrainian Conflict over Eastern Galicia
- Prostitution
- Provisional Government
- Railways (Russian Empire)
- Rape
- Rasputin, Grigoriĭ Efimovich
- Reconnaissance and Observation
- Red Army
- Refugees (Russian Empire)
- Revolution of 1905 (Russian Empire)
- Riga, Treaty of
- Russian Expeditionary Force
- Russian Expeditionary Force
- Russo-Japanese War
- Sazonov, Sergeĭ Dmitrievich
- Shells Crisis of 1915
- Shti︠u︡rmer, Boris Vladimirovich
- Siberian Intervention 1918-1922
- Sich Riflemen
- Smetona, Antanas
- Smoking and Cigarette Consumption
- Spy Fever 1914
- Stalin, Joseph
- Stereotypes
- Stravinsky, Igor
- Tampere, Battle of
- Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw
- Trialism
- Trotsky, Leon
- Turkestan
- Ukraine
- Ulmanis, Kārlis
- Union des Nationalités
- Union of Zemstvos and Towns
- Vācietis, Jukums
- Voldemaras, Augustinas
- Volunteer Army
- War Bonds
- War Communism
- War Industry Committees
- Wireless Telegraphy
- Wrangel, Petr Nikolaevich, Baron
- Yudenich, Nikolaĭ Nikolayevich
See also
- Air Warfare
- Alliance System 1914
- Antisemitism
- Arms Race prior to 1914, Armament Policy
- Atrocities
- Bereavement and Mourning
- Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War
- Caricatures
- Censorship
- Centenary (Historiography)
- Centenary (Internet)
- Centenary (Museums)
- Centenary (Visual Arts)
- Civilian and Military Power
- Civilian Morale
- Colonial Empires after the War/Decolonization
- Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen
- Controversy: The Media's Responsibility for Crises and Conflicts in the Age of Imperialism
- Demobilization
- Drugs
- Eastern Front
- Economic Planning before 1914
- Espionage
- Film/Cinema
- Forced Labour
- Governments, Parliaments and Parties
- Graphic Arts and Advertising as War Propaganda
- Health, Disease, Mortality; Demographic Effects
- Historiography 1918-Today
- Influenza Pandemic
- International Labour Organization
- International Law and the Laws of War
- July Crisis 1914
- Labor
- Labour Movements, Trade Unions and Strikes
- League of Nations
- Literature
- Memory of the War: Popular Memory 1918-1945, 1945 to the Present
- Migration and Mobility
- Militarism
- Military Justice
- Military Lessons of the First World War
- Moral Norms and Values
- Museums
- Negotiating and Mediating Conduct of War
- Occupation during the War
- On the Road to Modern War
- Organization of War Economies
- Othering/Atrocity Propaganda
- Pacifism
- Paramilitary Violence
- Peace Initiatives
- Photography
- Post-war Societies
- Prisoners of War
- Propaganda at Home and Abroad
- Property Rights and Economic Nationalism
- Raw Materials
- Red Cross
- Refugees
- Religious Mobilization and Popular Belief
- Resettlement
- Revolutions
- Rural Society
- Russian Civil War
- Shifts and Tensions in Ethnic/National Groups
- Social Conflict
- Social Costs of War
- State, Civil Society and Relief Organizations for War
- The Churches
- The Everyday as Involved in War
- The Historiography of the Origins of the First World War
- The Military at Home
- The Paris Peace Conference and its Consequences
- The Way to War
- Urban Societies and Cities
- Venereal Diseases
- Veterans' Associations
- War Aims and War Aims Discussions
- Warfare 1914-1918
- War Finance
- War Letters: Communication between Front and Home Front
- War Losses
- Wartime Emotions: Honour, Shame, and the Ecstasy of Sacrifice
- Willingly to War. Public Response to the Outbreak of War
- Women’s Mobilization for War
- Women War Reporters
- Xenophobia
Survey Articles (Regional)
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This article presents a survey of the First World War in the region of today’s states of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland. Chronologically the article begins with the outbreak of the war in … READ MORE
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This paper presents the process of building an independent Polish state during the First World War, which, from the Polish perspective, was the most important result of this conflict. The article … READ MORE
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The Russian Empire entered the war in order to preserve its Great Power status, but it ended the war in a bout of revolution and decolonization. The army had a mixed record in the war, losing several … READ MORE
Regional
Regional Thematic Articles
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This paper shows the transformation and subsequent preservation of Russian funeral traditions in wartime by examining attitudes towards the deceased and death itself, the ordeal of loss, the … READ MORE
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Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Russian Empire)
By Aleksandr Borisovich Astashov
The goal of this article is to uncover the causes, dynamics, and transformation of attitudes in the Russian army during the First World War. The contingents of the Russian army constantly changed … READ MORE
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Belarus is in a region that was greatly affected by the First World War. For various political and ideological reasons, that global conflict was long overshadowed by the Second World War. The … READ MORE
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Contrary to the Great War, the regaining of Polish independence in 1918 has long been rooted in Polish collective memory. Its celebration has become increasingly popular since 2010. The celebration … READ MORE
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Contrary to the Great War, the regaining of Polish independence in 1918 has long been rooted in Polish collective memory. Its celebration has become increasingly popular since 2010. The celebration … READ MORE
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In Russia, the eve of 2014 and the celebration of the 100th anniversary of the outbreak of the First World War were the expression of a large-scale state intervention in the structures of … READ MORE
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In Ukraine, commemorations of the centennial of the First World War were sporadic and mainly had a grassroots character. There were no large-scale state-organized events and regional authorities were … READ MORE
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This article examines the mechanisms, results, and characteristics of the national mobilization in Russia in the conditions of the First World War. Moreover, it considers the forms of cooperation … READ MORE
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Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen (East Central Europe)
By Jussi Jalonen, Klaus Richter and Piotr Szlanta
In the countries of East Central Europe, the commemoration of soldiers who fell during the First World War followed a complex trajectory. After 1918, governments invested in war cemeteries and war … READ MORE
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The fundamental factor in the existence of a Russian cult of the war dead was the public sphere and its particular characteristics in postwar Russian culture and politics, not a divergence from … READ MORE
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Until 1914, cinema in the Polish lands was shaped by borders between the partitioning powers. Unlike the territories in the Prussian partition, Austrian-ruled Galicia and Russian-ruled Congress … READ MORE
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An early actor in the cinema industry, Russia held a special position due to the strong foreign, notably French and German, influences. The First World War saw an unprecedented boom in national … READ MORE
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The German occupation of the north-western territories of the tsarist empire was characterized by a strong tendency to exploit local natural resources and manpower. In particular, the occupied … READ MORE
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Food and nutrition became a crucial problem in wartime Russia. This problem may be considered as three closely related questions. The first of these concerns food production and consumption, the … READ MORE
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Governments, Parliaments and Parties; Political Movements and Protostate Formation (East Central Europe)
By Klaus Richter and Piotr Szlanta
Political movements in Poland and the Baltics were heavily influenced by the German occupation, the Russian Revolution, and the political agency of their diasporas. While the establishment of an … READ MORE
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At the beginning of World War I, Russian political parties found themselves in deep crisis. In contrast, the State Duma had become the epicenter of the country’s political life. The “Holy … READ MORE
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East Central European historians of the First World War have focused and continue to focus on the regaining independence and state-building processes that took place in East Central Europe in the … READ MORE
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The Russian Civil War of 1917-20 was closely related to the World War in terms of its cause, conduct, and results. This article discusses the two distinct phases of the Civil War, which were divided … READ MORE
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During the First World War, revolutionary changes occurred in the labour movement in East Central Europe. The total mobilisation of resources by the warring powers and the economic crisis increased … READ MORE
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This article outlines the development of the labour movement in Russia from the outbreak of the war until the Bolshevik revolution. It gives attention to workers and their forms of protest as well as … READ MORE
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This essay surveys the issue of Russian labor during the First World War. It summarizes existing historiography about the topic and suggests the parameters of statistics and definitions of the … READ MORE
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This article outlines the corpus and characteristics of Russian literature during the First World War. It will discuss the reasons why this body of texts – in contrast to the literature of other … READ MORE
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While on the Western Front there were only limited territorial movements, the Eastern Front and warfare in southeastern Europe, including parts of Italy, had all the characteristics of mobile … READ MORE
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This article examines the politics of the German (''Generalgouvernement'' Warschau) and Austro-Hungarian (''Militärgeneralgouvernement'' Lublin) occupation of the Kingdom of Poland during World War … READ MORE
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Occupation played a crucial role in Eastern Europe between 1914 and 1921: the highly mobile front allowed trenches to be shifted over hundreds of miles, resulting in the usurpation of foreign lands. … READ MORE
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The multiple demands of protracted warfare subjected the entire economic system of the Russian Empire to immense and ultimately intolerable strain. Nevertheless, the war witnessed the emergence of … READ MORE
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During the First World War, Józef Piłsudski and his followers invented the legend of the Riflemen Association and the First Brigade of the legions. Piłsudski, as the leader of the First Cadre … READ MORE
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Agrarianism became a major political force in the independent states that emerged from the western periphery of the Russian Empire at the end of the First World War. Politicians of agrarian parties … READ MORE
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Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland – all countries founded after World War I on the ruins of the Russian Empire – had to face more complex challenges than most of the stable western … READ MORE
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In the context of the Russian economy’s spectacular collapse under the strain of the First World War and the 1917 revolution, this article analyses the two main phases of economic strategy in … READ MORE
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The armistices of 1918 officially ended the First World War in Europe, but violence did not cease with the signing of the peace treaties. Fighting continued not only on the periphery, in Archangelsk … READ MORE
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Although in late 1918 countries of East Central Europe had different forms of government and military situations, they all faced similar social problems. First, the wartime ethnicization reached its … READ MORE
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In contrast with the war in the West and its aftermath, the First World War in Eastern Europe did not come to an end in 1918, but instead gave rise to wars of national independence and to a prolonged … READ MORE
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The situation of the press in East Central Europe worsened after the outbreak of the First World War. There was a temporary growth in readership as a result of a desire for information. This did not, … READ MORE
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Tsarist censorship strictly limited the information about military operations that could appear in the press. However, it could not stem the increasing criticism of the government. One of the main … READ MORE
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This article is devoted to the main stages and areas of military planning in Russia on the eve of WWI which led to a compromise between supporters of defensive and offensive strategies in 1912. Among … READ MORE
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During the war, hundreds of thousands of East Central Europeans mobilised to the imperial armies of Austro-Hungary, Russia, and Germany were taken prisoner. Beyond the ordinary problems of POWs such … READ MORE
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This article explores the particularities of the situation of prisoners of war (POWs) in Russia and the implications of the domestic political situation in Russia on the fate of POWs. The upheaval in … READ MORE
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This article discusses the content and impact of various propaganda strategies which were used in East Central Europe by warring powers, local political parties and national organizations during the … READ MORE
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This article studies the main institutions, forms, content, means, and degree of effectiveness of Russian propaganda during the years of the First World War. The features of state and unofficial … READ MORE
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This article discusses the influence the Russian Revolution had on countries in East Central Europe. In the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania there was no direct impact because of the German occupation. … READ MORE
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The Russian Revolution was one of the most influential events to emerge from the furnace of the First World War. It transformed Russia and its Empire and firmly planted the flag of world revolution … READ MORE
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Although Russia made considerable progress in the decades preceding 1914, the onset of the First World War revealed the country's continuing dependency on foreign powers in sustaining its industrial, … READ MORE
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This essay analyzes social conflict in the Russian Empire during the Great War. It outlines the state of society prior to the war and the transition from initial social calm after the war’s … READ MORE
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Already in autumn 1914, East Central Europe became a main theatre of operational warfare and an object of strategic planning for the Central Powers, Russia, and later the Entente. After strategic … READ MORE
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Russia reluctantly entered the Great War to preserve its status as a great power. However, once the fighting began, it was the first amongst the Allies to state its territorial desiderata, which were … READ MORE
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Unlike the war on the Western Front, warfare in East Central Europe during the First World War was characterised by comparatively rapid movements, especially in 1915 and 1917/18. This manifested … READ MORE
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In late summer 1914 the Russian, German and Austrian armies engaged in intense battles from East Prussia to Galicia. After a prolonged siege through the winter of 1914-15 at the Austrian fortress of … READ MORE
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World War I was financially ruinous for the Russian government. Its decision to abolish the lucrative state spirits monopoly left a gaping hole in the budget. The Ministry of Finance opted to cover … READ MORE
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With about 5.5 million out of 16 million soldiers killed and wounded, the Russian Empire appears to have suffered less than France and Germany. But that does not take into account some other facts: … READ MORE
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As a total war, the First World War precipitated the involvement of thousands of Russian women, often in capacities that transcended previous war experiences, created new opportunities and … READ MORE
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Encyclopedic Entries
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Mikhail Alekseyev was a Russian general who was the chief of staff of the general headquarters (''Stavka'') of the Russian army from August 1915 until May 1917. Yet, the military contribution of this … READ MORE
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Born Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, Aleksandra Fedorovna married the future Russian Emperor Nicholas II in 1894 and became empress. She was engaged in charity work and served as a nurse during the … READ MORE
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During World War I, the Russian military command was overtly anti-Semitic. Russian commanders pointed to the alleged disloyalty of Russia’s Jewish population. The Russian army expelled Jews from … READ MORE
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The Army of Islam, which was created by the order of Enver Pasha dated 5 April 1918, was a military force that performed operations in the summer of 1918 which resulted in the expansion of Ottoman … READ MORE
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The Republic of Azerbaijan is a majority Turkic and secular Muslim nation in the South Caucasus. This republic was proclaimed on 28 May 1918, during World War I. The Bolshevik invasion on 27 April … READ MORE
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The Battle of Baku was the conclusive battle that ended the war between the anti-Ottoman/anti-Musavatist forces in Baku and the Ottoman-Azerbaijani forces. The Army of Islam under the command of Nuri … READ MORE
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During the Estonian War of Independence, the Baltic Germans - despite their relatively small numbers - established their own military forces, the ''Baltenregiment'', in order to support the struggle. … READ MORE
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When Latvia felt endangered by the Bolsheviks they called for German help, since Germany had assisted in clearing the country from the Bolsheviks before. However, very soon tensions between the … READ MORE
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Invented in France in 1860, barbed wire was further developed in the United States, where it was used to restrict cattle and secure territory. Acquiring far more menacing qualities in the First World … READ MORE
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The Great War was a severe trial for Belarus and its population. It ruined the local economy and caused a massive exodus of refugees. An attempt to establish Belarusian statehood was made during the … READ MORE
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Jan Bloch was an entrepreneur, social activist and pacifist. At the end of his life, he published a comprehensive work in which he predicted the course and consequences of World War I. He warned of … READ MORE
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Jan Bloch was an entrepreneur, social activist and pacifist. At the end of his life, he published a comprehensive work in which he predicted the course and consequences of World War I. He warned of … READ MORE
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Elsa Brändström was the only neutral representative to work amongst prisoners of war (POWs) in Russia, Siberia, and Turkestan for five and a half years between winter between winter 1914 and summer … READ MORE
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Aleksei Alekseevich Brusilov was a Russian general in the First World War, successively holding the posts of commander of the 8th Army, commander the south-western front and supreme … READ MORE
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The Battle of Cēsis took place on 6-23 June 1919, near Cēsis, Latvia, during Latvian War of Independence. German units fought Estonian-Latvian units. The Estonian-Latvian victory led to the … READ MORE
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During the war, the Tsarist government imported large groups of Chinese to the Russian Empire to work behind the front lines. Despite their important contribution to the Russian war effort, Chinese … READ MORE
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Circassian nationalism refers to national movements among Adyghe people, a North Caucasian ethnic group. The term is also used to include other North Caucasian peoples who share historical … READ MORE
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Cossacks were warrior subjects who provided the tsars with mounted troops in return for land. The First World War and the revolutions of 1905 and 1917 brutalised and weakened the Cossack communities … READ MORE
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The Czechoslovak Legion was a military formation of Czechs, Slovaks, exiles, and former prisoners of war organized in Russia in 1914 to fight in the First World War. The article describes the history … READ MORE
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Ignacy Daszyński was one of the foremost figures on the Polish political scene in the first half of the 20th century. He personified a subset of elites who merged the struggle for social … READ MORE
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Following the Bolshevik seizure of power in October 1917, Lenin issued his Decree on Peace, calling for a truce and demanding that peace be agreed upon by people’s assemblies to be convened across … READ MORE
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Anton Ivanovich Denikin was a Russian general, politician and writer. He fought in the Russo-Japanese War, the First World War and the Russian Civil War. He is most famous as a leader of the White … READ MORE
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This is the first in what it is hoped will become a series of discussion forums hosted by ''1914-1918-online''. In this discussion forum, General Editor Peter Gatrell invited contributions that … READ MORE
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Roman Stanisław Dmowski was a Polish politician and most importantly the co-founder of National Democracy in Poland before the First World War and during the interwar period. He was also the … READ MORE
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In February 1917 two centres of power emerged to replace the tsarist government: the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet. The Provisional Government had formal authority but the Soviet … READ MORE
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The Tsar reluctantly granted an elected legislative assembly, the State Duma, during the 1905 Russian Revolution. The first two Dumas were dissolved amidst bitter conflict and the third did little to … READ MORE
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The First World War, the Russian revolutions of February and October 1917, and the ensuing Civil War created a wave of emigration from the territories of the Russian Empire into Western and Central … READ MORE
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World War I was not simply a conflict among European states but a global war of empires. The fighting took place not only in Europe, but also in Africa, Asia, and across the Middle East, and it … READ MORE
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During the First World War both sides accused each other of employing illegal small arms ammunition – either expanding or explosive bullets. The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 outlawed … READ MORE
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Fear
By Jan Plamper
Of the two world wars, the First World War was special in that fear figured prominently in a number of domains, including military tactics, psychiatry, and first-person sources. Fear was to be … READ MORE
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The Finnish Civil War was fought between the socialist Reds and the non-socialist Whites in the newly sovereign state. The conflict lasted from late January until mid-May 1918 and resulted in a White … READ MORE
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European militaries considered fortifications before the First World War as vital to their strategic planning. Advancements in weapons technology after the mid-19th century caused … READ MORE
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Juozas Gabrys was one of the major advocates of Lithuanian political aspirations in the international arena from 1911 to 1918. He contributed to the establishment of the Council of Lithuania in 1917. … READ MORE
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''Stavka Verkhovnogo Glavnokomanduyushchego'' was the centre of the field command of the Russian army, the headquarters of the supreme commander and his staff in … READ MORE
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World War One was a catalyst for Georgian independence, which was declared on 26 May 1918. The war demonstrated the significance of Georgian territories as a transit route and source of raw materials … READ MORE
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Grigorovich was Navy Minister between 1911 and 1917. He sought cooperation with parliament and secured funds to rebuild fleets ravaged by war with Japan. His support for mobilisation in 1914 helped … READ MORE
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General Vassillii Iosifovich Gurko was a Russian military commander during the First World War. Between November 1916 and February 1917 he was the chief of staff in the General Headquarters of the … READ MORE
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General Józef Haller was one of the best known Polish military commanders of the First World War period, a lieutenant of the Polish Legions, commander of the II Brigade of the Polish Legions, … READ MORE
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The so-called “Wars of Independence” in the Baltics were part of a larger conflict and continuing warfare in Eastern Europe. After the proclamations of independence and the November Armistice, … READ MORE
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Russian-Jewish author, playwright, journalist, orator, and political activist; co-founder of the Zion Mule Corps (1915-16) and the Jewish Legion (1917-21, the unofficial name of the 38th Battalion of … READ MORE
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The Finnish Jäger movement recruited approximately 2,000 men to the German Armed Forces during the First World War. After their service on the Eastern Front, the Jägers formed the cadres of the … READ MORE
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In July 1917, economic chaos and unpopular preparations for military action provoked armed demonstrations by workers and troops demanding the Petrograd Soviet take power from Russia’s Provisional … READ MORE
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Aleksandr Kerenskii was Minister of War in Russia’s Provisional Government from April to October 1917 and Prime Minister from July to October. He embodied the hopes of the February Revolution of … READ MORE
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Aleksandr Vasil'evich Kolchak was a Russian admiral and political figure. He participated in the Russo-Japanese War, the First World War, and the Russian Civil War. He was one of the leaders of the … READ MORE
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Kornilov rose rapidly in the Russian army during the First World War, becoming Commander-in-Chief in July 1917. In August, he sent troops into Petrograd, demanding all military and civil authority be … READ MORE
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The Battle of Kostiuchnówka occurred during the Brusilov Offensive in the Volhynia region on 4–6 July 1916. It was fought between the Austro-Hungarian Corps under General Leopold Hauer’s command … READ MORE
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This article details the mutiny of two Russian brigades sent to France in World War I. The less rebellious of the two was finally disciplined and used to suppress the unruly brigade in 1917 in what … READ MORE
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Johan Laidoner, Estonian general and statesman, started his career in the Russian army during World War I. He was crucial in establishing an Estonian army, which he commanded in the War of … READ MORE
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The Latvian Riflemen were Latvian territorial units comprised of nine battalions, referred to as regiments from 1916 on, in the Russian army. They were active on the Northern Front (Riga) between … READ MORE
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In World War I Lemberg (German: Lemberg, Ukrainian: Lviv, Polish: Lwów) played an important role as a political and administrative center of Galicia and was of great strategic significance as one of … READ MORE
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Vladimir Il’ich Lenin was the founder and leader of the Bolshevik Party and of the Soviet state up until his death. Theoretically and practically he combined the strategy of a socialist revolution … READ MORE
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Between 1914 and 1918, the machine gun played an ever-increasing role on the battlefield. Today, even though artillery was responsible for the majority of deaths, the machine gun is the weapon most … READ MORE
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Nestor Makhno was a commander of peasant insurgents who fought the Bolsheviks, Whites and Ukrainian nationalists in the South East of present-day Ukraine. His espousal of anarchism has won him … READ MORE
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A Finnish aristocrat, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim served as cavalry commander in the Imperial Russian army during the First World War. After the Russian Revolution, he commanded Finnish White forces … READ MORE
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One of the founders and leaders of the Constitutional Democratic Party, Pavel Nikolaevich Miliukov took an active part in the organisation of the Progressive Bloc. He made a famous speech in the Duma … READ MORE
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During the First World War, at least half a million Muslim soldiers fought in the Russian Army. In spite of efforts of the Ottoman Empire to mobilize Russia’s Muslims against their rulers, Muslim … READ MORE
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Nicholas II ruled Russia from 1894 and was commander of the army from September 1915 until his abdication in March 1917 amidst popular demonstrations against bread shortages, the war and autocracy. … READ MORE
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Nikolai Nikolaevich, a senior Russian officer and close relative of Tsar Nicholas II, was involved in attempts to reform the Russian army from 1905. He was named Commander-in-Chief at the onset of … READ MORE
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The Gorlice-Tarnów Offensive of May/June 1915 was a major military success for Austria-Hungary and Germany on the Eastern Front. Following the joint campaign of the Central Powers, the Russian army … READ MORE
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Ignacy Jan Paderewski was a virtuoso pianist. He made use of his popularity in the United States and western Europe to propagate the idea of Polish independence and state sovereignty. In … READ MORE
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Konstantin Päts, a leading Estonian politician, was a key figure in the establishment of Estonian independence during and after World War I. In 1934, he and Johan Laidoner organized a putsch and … READ MORE
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During the Russian Civil War, peasant uprisings swept the former Russian Empire. In 1918 and 1919, these uprisings were mainly local responses to requisitioning and conscription. In 1920 and 1921, … READ MORE
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Józef Klemens Piłsudski was a Polish statesman, socialist politician, freedom fighter, and soldier. He commanded the Polish Legions during the First World War, and served as the first chief of … READ MORE
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The Bayonne Company was the first Polish unit in France, formed in 1914 as a unit of the French Foreign Legion. The Polish Army in France was created in June 1917 and consisted of volunteers. After … READ MORE
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In the 19th century, the German-Polish borderlands became the object of nationalist designs on both sides. After 1871, the German nation-state sought to limit Polish citizens’ room for … READ MORE
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The ''Związek Legionistów Polskich'' (Polish Legionaries Union), or ZLP, was an association of veterans of Polish Legions who had fought under Józef Piłsudski for Poland’s independence during … READ MORE
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At the outbreak of the Great War, two Polish Legions were formed within the Austro-Hungarian army. They eventually increased to three brigades that participated in a series of important campaigns in … READ MORE
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The Polish-Lithuanian border conflict (1914-1924) was a consequence of the processes of modernisation and the course of the First World War. Following the creation of the states of Lithuania and … READ MORE
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The Polish Army was born out of the chaos of revolutionary Russia. The Russian authorities accepted its establishment, and later the army sought an agreement with the occupying Germans. Polish units … READ MORE
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Polish paramilitary organizations were active in Galicia from 1910 to 1914 with the permission of the Austro-Hungarian army’s intelligence service. Their ostensible aim was to militarily train … READ MORE
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The hostilities between Bolshevik Russia and Poland started as early as 1919. In April 1920, Poland and Ukraine liberated Kiev from Bolshevik control. However, in the summer of 1919, the Bolsheviks … READ MORE
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The Polish-Ukrainian conflict over Eastern Galicia in 1918-19 refers to an armed conflict between Poland and the West Ukrainian National Republic (''Zakhidnoukrayins’ka Narodna Respublika,'' ZUNR). … READ MORE
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Prostitution was considered among the most important societal problems facing civilian-military authorities in belligerent countries during World War I. Despite growing military control of the … READ MORE
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When the tsarist government collapsed in February 1917, liberal politicians from the State Duma (parliament), later joined by moderate socialists, formed a Provisional Government. Unable to satisfy … READ MORE
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Vast land area, sparse population density, inconsistent tsarist policy, and underdeveloped industry prevented Russian railroads from growth before and during the First World War. In 1913 the general … READ MORE
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Although rape was not usually systematic, it occurred frequently on all fronts during the First World War, during both invasion and occupation periods. It was often used in propaganda to discredit … READ MORE
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Rasputin was a peasant turned pilgrim who became a close associate of the Russian royal family. Accounts of his wartime influence on government may be exaggerated but public perceptions of his power … READ MORE
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Reconnaissance was aviation’s most important mission in the Great War. When war began, aircraft only performed observation and reconnaissance. The speed of intelligence gathered by aircraft changed … READ MORE
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The Red Army was a paradoxical force created by a party deeply suspicious of regular armies. It had many problems and flaws, but its creation was a prerequisite to the Bolshevik victory in the Civil … READ MORE
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German and Austrian advances in 1914 and 1915, together with policies of the Russian military authorities, created millions of refugees in the Russian empire. These refugees suffered immense hardship … READ MORE
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Social and political unrest swept the Russian Empire in 1905, forcing the autocratic tsarist regime to grant the creation of a popularly-elected legislative body; the State Duma. However, the army … READ MORE
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The Treaty of Riga was signed by Poland and the Soviet state on 18 March 1921 and was preceded by a preliminary treaty of 12 October 1920. It ended the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-1920 and was a … READ MORE
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The Russian Expeditionary Force in France and in Macedonia (“Brigades russes en France et en Macédoine” in French and “Russkij èkspedicionnyj korpus” in Russian) was an ensemble of four … READ MORE
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The Russian Expeditionary Force in France and in Macedonia (“Brigades russes en France et en Macédoine” in French and “Russkij èkspedicionnyj korpus” in Russian) was an ensemble of four … READ MORE
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The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, caused by Russian and Japanese expansionism in the Far East, inflicted humiliating defeats on Russia at land and sea. The war contributed to domestic unrest in … READ MORE
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Sergei Sazonov became Russian Foreign Minister in autumn 1910. In July 1914 he argued for a firm stance against Austrian aggression and general mobilisation of the army, but historians dispute his … READ MORE
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In 1914, quick-firing field artillery could fire more shells than domestic industries, geared to peacetime consumption levels, could supply. Armies, although recognizing the dangers, had … READ MORE
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Boris Shtiurmer was Prime Minister from January to November 1916, also serving as Interior Minister between March and July 1916 and Minister of Foreign Affairs from July to November. Denunciations of … READ MORE
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Woodrow Wilson proposed a joint intervention with Japan to “rescue” the Czech legion in 1918. Japan dispatched 72,000 troops to Siberia. Allied intervention ended after the collapse of the White … READ MORE
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The Ukrainian Sich Riflemen (''Ukrains’ki Sičovi stril’tsi,'' USS) was a Ukrainian battalion within the Austro-Hungarian army. The USS was active in the defense of the Eastern Front in World War … READ MORE
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During the First World War, political writer and editor of Lithuanian magazines, Antanas Smetona in 1917 became chairman of the Council of Lithuania, which declared Lithuania as an independent state … READ MORE
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During the First World War, governments, civilians and soldiers alike prized smoking for its morale-boosting qualities, in addition to a medicinal effect following combat and periods of intense … READ MORE
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Spy Fever describes an anxiety or paranoia that enemy spies might be active within one’s own nation. The phenomenon was widespread in all theatres of World War I from at least August of 1914. Most … READ MORE
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Joseph Stalin lived in Siberian exile from 1913 until the revolution of March 1917. During the early period after the “February Revolution”, as well as during the year November 1917 to November … READ MORE
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This article summarises the main wartime stereotypes that defined war propaganda in Germany, France, Great Britain, the USA and Russia. It focuses less on particular details of each national enemy … READ MORE
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Having gained success throughout Europe with his compositions for the ''Ballets Russes'' (centered in Paris), Russian-born Igor Stravinsky took refuge from World War I in Switzerland from 1914 to … READ MORE
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Fought between the Finnish Red and White forces from 15 March to 6 April 1918, the Battle of Tampere was the decisive confrontation of the Finnish Civil War. After a siege and bombardment, the White … READ MORE
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The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Warsaw was originally built to honor the fallen Polish soldiers of the wars from 1914 to 1921. After the First World War the Cult of the Unknown Soldier … READ MORE
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Before and at the beginning of World War I, various proposals concerning the creation of a third part of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy were brought up for discussion. Each of the aspiring groups … READ MORE
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Leon Trotsky's communist leadership was partially responsible for bringing about the October Revolution of 1917, after which Russia exited the First World War. Starting as an activist, he became … READ MORE
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The province of Turkestan - modern-day Central Asia -, a Russian military colony since 1865-1875, truly entered WWI in 1916, when Tsar Nicholas II and his military staff decided, on 7 July (Gregorian … READ MORE
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At the beginning of the 20th century Ukrainian lands were part of the Austro-Hungarian (Galicia, Transcarpathia, Bukovina) and Russian (the nine right-bank and left-bank provinces) … READ MORE
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Kārlis Ulmanis was the first prime minister of the Republic of Latvia. His four terms of office saw the successful conclusion of the Latvian War of … READ MORE
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The ''Union des Nationalités'', alternatively called the ''Office Central des Nationalités'' or ''Bureau des Nationalités'', was created in 1912 in Paris and remained in existence until 1919. Its … READ MORE
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The Unions of Zemstvos and of Towns mobilised local self-government bodies and professional specialists to provide medical aid to soldiers, relief for refugees and orphans and assistance in army … READ MORE
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Jukums Vācietis commanded the 5th ''Zemgale'' Latvian Rifle Battalion. After the October Revolution he sided with the Bolsheviks and became the first commander-in-chief of the Soviet … READ MORE
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During the First World War, as professor at the University of Perm (Russia), Augustinas Voldemaras actively participated in the activities of Lithuanian exiles in Russia. In 1917 he argued for … READ MORE
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The Volunteer Army was the operational formation of anti-Bolshevik forces in South Russia during the period of the Civil War. This army became the basis of the organization of the White Movement. … READ MORE
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The governments of all belligerent countries issued special loans to finance their expenditure after the war began. To mobilize the financial resources of their peoples required concerted war bonds … READ MORE
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War Communism refers to policies, particularly economic, pursued by the Bolsheviks during the Civil War in response to the ideological and pragmatic demands of consolidating power. It was abandoned … READ MORE
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War Industry Committees were an attempt by Russian industrialists to mobilise the Russian economy for the war effort. They made some contribution to easing supply problems but mutual mistrust between … READ MORE
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Wireless telegraphy became an integral part of warfare on the ground, in the air, and at sea by 1918. Wireless helped to make the war global, though historians still debate its impact on the course … READ MORE
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Petr Nikolaevich Wrangel was a Russian general and political leader. He participated in the Russo-Japanese War, the First World War, and the Russian Civil War. He was one of the leaders of the White … READ MORE
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Nikolaĭ Yudenich was one of the most successful Russian commanders in World War One. He demonstrated admirable consistency in achieving victories on the Caucasus Front. During the Russian Civil War, … READ MORE
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See also
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Air Warfare
By Ross Mahoney and James Pugh
This article considers the use and evolution of air power during the First World War. By focusing on the principal air power roles – control of the air, tactical, strategic, and naval and maritime … READ MORE
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Alliances were an important feature of the international system on the eve of World War I. The formation of rival blocs of Great Powers has previously considered a major cause of the outbreak of war … READ MORE
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The First World War and its direct repercussions in the postwar period (revolution, counterrevolution, the founding of republics, and the Paris peace treaties) mark a profound caesura not only in the … READ MORE
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New weapons produced during the Industrial Revolution in the late 1800s heightened existing tensions among European nations as countries strove to outpace their enemies technologically. This … READ MORE
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The term "atrocity" describes an act of violence condemned by contemporaries as a breach of morality or the laws of war. "Atrocities" are culturally constructed; by 1914, an international discourse … READ MORE
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In the modern era, new forms of mourning and meaning-making for fallen soldiers emerged. The human losses of the First World War were largely mourned, honoured and remembered within … READ MORE
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Soldiers’ attitudes towards the Great War are a controversial issue, as they prove difficult to assess and raise complex methodological questions. They evolved during the course of the conflict, … READ MORE
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This article presents cartoonists as patriotic propagandists mobilizing their pens and brushes for the national cause during the war. It analyses their techniques for arousing emotions such as … READ MORE
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Censorship was an indispensable war weapon: its task was to keep the people in an atmosphere of utter ignorance and unshaken confidence in the authorities, and to allow their boundless indoctrination … READ MORE
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Innovative historical scholarship played an important role in the shaping of memory during the centenary of the First World War. It guided international public memory, was part of it and as such … READ MORE
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The centenary events surrounding the First World War have produced a significant amount of digital content in various forms, and thus has set a precedent for how large scale post-war memorisation can … READ MORE
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This article discusses how European museums – in particular, national war museums – dealt with the centenary of World War I. These museums still tend to tell the story of World War I from a … READ MORE
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The commemorative period between 2014 and 2018 was marked globally by numerous exhibitions of original artworks that had been commissioned and created during and immediately after World War 1. Most … READ MORE
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By 1914 the leading states had succumbed to varying degrees of militarism, subordinating other interests to those of the armed forces, yet all were governed by regimes in which the ultimate authority … READ MORE
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This article deals with civilian morale during the First World War. Between 1915 and 1918, governments “discovered” the importance of civilian morale and developed vast systems of surveillance to … READ MORE
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The First World War saw the colonial empires of France and Britain mobilised to aid European and imperial war efforts. This mobilisation and the difficulties of demobilisation placed considerable … READ MORE
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The First World War ushered in an unprecedented wave of commemorations. Mass death elicited a construction spree in memorial objects and sites across all countries and territories involved in the … READ MORE
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Controversy: The Media's Responsibility for Crises and Conflicts in the Age of Imperialism
By Peter Geiss
The article discusses the role of the media in the complex international process leading to the First World War with a focus on the press of the great powers. Recent research has shown that the … READ MORE
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The end of fighting in 1918 raised hopes for swift and equitable military demobilization amongst soldiers and civilians. The timing and nature of demobilization varied greatly, though, due to … READ MORE
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Throughout history, intoxicants were an important part of the war experience. The First World War was by no means an exception in that respect: its main “war drugs” were alcohol (mostly beer, … READ MORE
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Until recently, the eastern theater of the First World War was what Winston Churchill called “the Unknown War.” It was not overlooked, as other fronts were, but unknown; while people knew of some … READ MORE
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This article surveys the financial and economic planning for war before 1914 in the European Great Powers that initially entered the conflict – Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany and Russia. … READ MORE
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During the entire war, warring powers used the “secret war” to try to break the balance of the battlefield. Generally created in the previous few decades, intelligence and security services saw … READ MORE
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The First World War played a significant role in the evolution of film both as a medium for reporting war and as a tool for the propagandist manipulation of public opinion to support the war effort. … READ MORE
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This article examines the conditions, forms and consequences of forced labor and recruitment during the First World War, especially in German-occupied northern France, Belgium, Russian-Poland and … READ MORE
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One sees a wide range of political regimes from a democratic republic with universal male suffrage (France) to parliamentary, constitutional, or even oligarchical monarchies in the countries that … READ MORE
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This article discusses the close relationships between national governments, advertising trades and print media industries and assesses their significance for liberal democracy and national identity … READ MORE
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The rapid spread of epidemics ravaged military personnel and civilians in and outside Europe’s warzones during the Great War. Further, the great influenza pandemic of 1918-1919 became a global … READ MORE
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There have been four generations of historical writing about the 1914-1918 war. The first was composed of contemporaries who either fought in the war or helped run it, and spanned the period … READ MORE
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By examining the origins, pathways, demographic impact and consequences for the public, the medical profession and governments, of the so-called “Spanish” influenza pandemic of 1918-1919, this … READ MORE
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The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919, establishing both the League of Nations and another international organization: the International Labour Organization (ILO). The ILO was founded … READ MORE
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The article examines international efforts to curb states’ war-making prerogatives in the second half of the “long” 19th century. It captures new humanitarian sentiments circulating … READ MORE
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The international crisis that began with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 and culminated in the British declaration of war on Germany on 4 August is referred … READ MORE
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Across the major belligerent powers, industrial production and the mobilization and organization of industrial labor became central to the conduct of the First World War. States and private … READ MORE
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This article compares the history of labour movements during the war across a range of European countries. It charts the impact of the economic realities of the war upon labour and analyses the … READ MORE
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This article seeks to present an overview of First World War literature across many of the combatant nations from the outbreak of the conflict up to the beginning of the Second World War. Taking a … READ MORE
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What role do representations of the First World War play in media that reach a wide audience beyond the circle of experts? The following contribution focuses on this important question. Given the … READ MORE
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There is an ongoing debate among historians whether the First World War did in fact lead to drastic changes in migration and migration policies. The war certainly resulted in numerous severe … READ MORE
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Militarism is a vague term that has meant different things to different people at different times. It can be analysed as a popular phenomenon, or as a feature more at home in the halls of power, or … READ MORE
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This essay offers a comparative survey of the practice of military justice among several of the key belligerent powers. Accused soldiers enjoyed little in the way of legal protection, and punishment … READ MORE
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This article examines the lessons derived by the military organizations that participated in the First World War on land, at sea, and in the air. It demonstrates that while military and naval … READ MORE
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Change and continuity marked belligerent societies’ norms and values during the First World War. Normative institutions such as marriage and the family proved basically resilient but … READ MORE
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This article describes the lives and afterlives of the First World War museums in France, Russia, Germany, and in Britain and its Dominions Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In all these polities, … READ MORE
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Many issues surrounding the conduct of war in the years 1914-1918 were impervious to international negotiation or mediation, due either to a complete lack of consensus or to an absence of trust and … READ MORE
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After an initial wave of interest in 1914 and the immediate post-war period, international historiography long neglected the wartime occupation of territories inhabited by large civilian populations. … READ MORE
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The Great War was never considered the “war to end all wars” by the states and armed forces in conflict. The war’s legacies were processed in a wide variety of ways depending on forms of … READ MORE
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The First World War was a global conflict that caught most of the participants ill-prepared for the demands of total war. Economic mobilization beyond the initial needs of the troops involved … READ MORE
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In August 1914, a targeted and systematic manipulation of opinion by the media, intellectuals and authorities started. Atrocities were attributed to the enemies that arose from preformed images or … READ MORE
Thematic -
The idea of peace in total war may seem irrelevant, but pacifism, or peace activism, did exist during the First World War. A seemingly robust European peace movement existed before 1914, but it … READ MORE
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While World War I featured the largest armies ever assembled, it was also fought by unprecedented numbers of paramilitary fighters. In a situation where the line between combatant and non-combatant … READ MORE
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This paper examines major peace initiatives during World War I. It describes efforts by the chief European belligerents to split apart enemy coalitions with separate peace settlements as well … READ MORE
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The First World War represents a watershed in the history of war photography. It was the first conflict to be photographed in detail by all the participants and the first in which photography was … READ MORE
Thematic -
The First World War caused unprecedented disruption to societies across the globe, from Western and (especially) Central and Eastern Europe to East Africa. While many survivors could celebrate an end … READ MORE
Thematic -
The First World War marked the shift from a 19th century, relatively ''ad hoc'' management of prisoners of war, to the 20th century’s sophisticated prisoner of war camp … READ MORE
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This article summarizes and compares the principal arguments and strategies of propaganda at the home front, the military front, as well as in neutral and enemy countries. These included the … READ MORE
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This article explores the policies adopted and implemented against enemy property from the beginning of the Great War to the signing of the peace treaties in Europe. Breaking a long-standing … READ MORE
Thematic -
Raw materials were vital during the First World War. Due to the armaments production, the belligerents’ needs increased significantly, while the available resources fell. Each country intended both … READ MORE
Thematic -
National Red Cross societies played a very important role in the First World War. They supported armies’ medical services, brought relief to prisoners of war and sometimes organized their … READ MORE
Thematic -
This article addresses the scale of wartime population displacement in continental Europe, the relief efforts made on behalf of refugees, their impact on host communities, and the cultural … READ MORE
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From the cradle to the grave, popular religion formed a necessary and vital, if analytically messy, part of the human experience of the Great War. The war had the potential to atomize and alienate … READ MORE
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The conduct of warfare in 1914-1918 included extensive population resettlement in all theatres of war in Europe, both as a result of pre-emptive decisions by civilians to flee in order to evade the … READ MORE
Thematic -
This article surveys the various movements toward social, national, and political revolution that emerged during and in the wake of World War I. The Russian revolutions of 1917 serve as the first … READ MORE
Thematic -
The paper describes the impact of war on peasantry and its mobilisation in the war effort. While observers portrayed the countryside as rich and callous towards urban shortages or waging war, the … READ MORE
Thematic -
The Russian civil war was not simply a conflict between Red communists and White monarchists; rather, it involved a complex intertwining of military, social and political issues that were created or … READ MORE
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This article examines the changing dynamics of national tensions in the Habsburg, Romanov, and Ottoman empires during three distinct phases of the Great War. The outbreak and early months of the war … READ MORE
Thematic -
This article deals with the nature of social conflict during the war. The length of the conflict and growing food shortages on the home front strained relations between individuals and between social … READ MORE
Thematic -
This article explores how the anticipation, reality, and memory of sacrifice informed experiences and legacies of World War I. Drawing on representative examples from multiple nations, I suggest that … READ MORE
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A vast array of initiatives designed to counteract the destructiveness of the First World War was developed by states and societies across the world. Protecting the bodies and minds of soldiers from … READ MORE
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Reflecting current historiography, this article focuses primarily on Christian churches centered in the main European theater of the Great War, including more global interactions with the other … READ MORE
Thematic -
This essay examines how the "everyday" functions in war, not only for those on the home fronts, but for those in combat roles and for those living between the lines. Five important qualities, among … READ MORE
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The debate about the origins of the war remains a vibrant area of historical research. It has been characterised by a number of features. First, from the outset, political concerns shaped the debate, … READ MORE
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Regardless of whether it was based on volunteer enlistment or conscription, mass mobilization in all of the countries at war between 1914 and 1918 completely upended the pre-war relationships that … READ MORE
Thematic -
This article offers an overview of peacemaking after the First World War from the armistices of 1918 until 1923. It considers the outcomes of the five Parisian treaties (Versailles, Saint-Germain and … READ MORE
Thematic -
Imperialism shaped almost every facet of international politics from 1898 to 1914. Imperial concerns brought Britain into entente relationships with France and Russia. This Triple Entente often … READ MORE
Thematic -
Cities — with their comparatively large and dense but also vulnerable populations — went from being theaters of mass mobilization in favor of the political status quo to being sites of domestic … READ MORE
Thematic -
This essay traces belligerent policies toward venereal disease (VD) on the fighting and home fronts in Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain, Russia, and later, the United States. VD rates … READ MORE
Thematic -
Veterans’ associations formed an influential social movement during the interwar period. They provided the platform for former soldiers to commemorate the war and their fallen comrades and to … READ MORE
Thematic -
Despite what some believe, there is still a lot to say and learn about the First World War, particularly with regard to war aims. A lot of focus is currently placed on the cultural, social and … READ MORE
Thematic -
Static “trench warfare” belied a dynamic transformation in warfare between 1914 and 1918. Every army grappled with the same issues: how to end a strategic stalemate occasioned by their ability to … READ MORE
Thematic -
The Great War required war-making states to mobilize and sustain the financial resources for a global war on an unprecedented scale. What made war finance during the conflict so special is that this … READ MORE
Thematic -
In nations where literacy was well-established by 1914, letter-writing was critical to the emotional well-being of soldiers and their families. Men in uniform often circumvented the censors and sent … READ MORE
Thematic -
Military sources provide the primary statistics of war losses and casualties during World War I. In order to review and eventually revise their figures, one must understand how military statistics … READ MORE
Thematic -
Through investigating the pivotal role of honour in private and public matters, in foreign and domestic relations, and in propaganda and everyday life during the First World War, this article … READ MORE
Thematic -
It may surprise us to learn that some sectors of the European public were in favour of the war in 1914. The impact of modern weapons was not well understood and many people in the government, … READ MORE
Thematic -
This article explores women’s economic, social, and political responses to the First World War. It addresses their mobilization including their engagement with the war effort as well as their … READ MORE
Thematic -
Female war reporters from belligerent and neutral countries were present in the major war theatres in Europe and the Middle East throughout 1914 to 1918. While admission of journalists to the war … READ MORE
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This article provides an overview of xenophobia during the First World War - namely, the ways in which the conflict was justified and sustained by the growth of hatred for external enemies, and … READ MORE
Thematic
Survey Articles (Regional)
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This article presents a survey of the First World War in the region of today’s states of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland. Chronologically the article begins with the outbreak of the war in … READ MORE
Regional -
This paper presents the process of building an independent Polish state during the First World War, which, from the Polish perspective, was the most important result of this conflict. The article … READ MORE
Regional -
The Russian Empire entered the war in order to preserve its Great Power status, but it ended the war in a bout of revolution and decolonization. The army had a mixed record in the war, losing several … READ MORE
Regional
Regional Thematic Articles
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This paper shows the transformation and subsequent preservation of Russian funeral traditions in wartime by examining attitudes towards the deceased and death itself, the ordeal of loss, the … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Russian Empire)
By Aleksandr Borisovich Astashov
The goal of this article is to uncover the causes, dynamics, and transformation of attitudes in the Russian army during the First World War. The contingents of the Russian army constantly changed … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
Belarus is in a region that was greatly affected by the First World War. For various political and ideological reasons, that global conflict was long overshadowed by the Second World War. The … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
Contrary to the Great War, the regaining of Polish independence in 1918 has long been rooted in Polish collective memory. Its celebration has become increasingly popular since 2010. The celebration … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
Contrary to the Great War, the regaining of Polish independence in 1918 has long been rooted in Polish collective memory. Its celebration has become increasingly popular since 2010. The celebration … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
In Russia, the eve of 2014 and the celebration of the 100th anniversary of the outbreak of the First World War were the expression of a large-scale state intervention in the structures of … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
In Ukraine, commemorations of the centennial of the First World War were sporadic and mainly had a grassroots character. There were no large-scale state-organized events and regional authorities were … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
This article examines the mechanisms, results, and characteristics of the national mobilization in Russia in the conditions of the First World War. Moreover, it considers the forms of cooperation … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen (East Central Europe)
By Jussi Jalonen, Klaus Richter and Piotr Szlanta
In the countries of East Central Europe, the commemoration of soldiers who fell during the First World War followed a complex trajectory. After 1918, governments invested in war cemeteries and war … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
The fundamental factor in the existence of a Russian cult of the war dead was the public sphere and its particular characteristics in postwar Russian culture and politics, not a divergence from … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
Until 1914, cinema in the Polish lands was shaped by borders between the partitioning powers. Unlike the territories in the Prussian partition, Austrian-ruled Galicia and Russian-ruled Congress … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
An early actor in the cinema industry, Russia held a special position due to the strong foreign, notably French and German, influences. The First World War saw an unprecedented boom in national … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
The German occupation of the north-western territories of the tsarist empire was characterized by a strong tendency to exploit local natural resources and manpower. In particular, the occupied … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
Food and nutrition became a crucial problem in wartime Russia. This problem may be considered as three closely related questions. The first of these concerns food production and consumption, the … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
Governments, Parliaments and Parties; Political Movements and Protostate Formation (East Central Europe)
By Klaus Richter and Piotr Szlanta
Political movements in Poland and the Baltics were heavily influenced by the German occupation, the Russian Revolution, and the political agency of their diasporas. While the establishment of an … READ MORE
Regional Thematic -
At the beginning of World War I, Russian political parties found themselves in deep crisis. In contrast, the State Duma had become the epicenter of the country’s political life. The “Holy … READ MORE
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East Central European historians of the First World War have focused and continue to focus on the regaining independence and state-building processes that took place in East Central Europe in the … READ MORE
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The Russian Civil War of 1917-20 was closely related to the World War in terms of its cause, conduct, and results. This article discusses the two distinct phases of the Civil War, which were divided … READ MORE
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During the First World War, revolutionary changes occurred in the labour movement in East Central Europe. The total mobilisation of resources by the warring powers and the economic crisis increased … READ MORE
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This article outlines the development of the labour movement in Russia from the outbreak of the war until the Bolshevik revolution. It gives attention to workers and their forms of protest as well as … READ MORE
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This essay surveys the issue of Russian labor during the First World War. It summarizes existing historiography about the topic and suggests the parameters of statistics and definitions of the … READ MORE
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This article outlines the corpus and characteristics of Russian literature during the First World War. It will discuss the reasons why this body of texts – in contrast to the literature of other … READ MORE
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While on the Western Front there were only limited territorial movements, the Eastern Front and warfare in southeastern Europe, including parts of Italy, had all the characteristics of mobile … READ MORE
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This article examines the politics of the German (''Generalgouvernement'' Warschau) and Austro-Hungarian (''Militärgeneralgouvernement'' Lublin) occupation of the Kingdom of Poland during World War … READ MORE
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Occupation played a crucial role in Eastern Europe between 1914 and 1921: the highly mobile front allowed trenches to be shifted over hundreds of miles, resulting in the usurpation of foreign lands. … READ MORE
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The multiple demands of protracted warfare subjected the entire economic system of the Russian Empire to immense and ultimately intolerable strain. Nevertheless, the war witnessed the emergence of … READ MORE
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During the First World War, Józef Piłsudski and his followers invented the legend of the Riflemen Association and the First Brigade of the legions. Piłsudski, as the leader of the First Cadre … READ MORE
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Agrarianism became a major political force in the independent states that emerged from the western periphery of the Russian Empire at the end of the First World War. Politicians of agrarian parties … READ MORE
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Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland – all countries founded after World War I on the ruins of the Russian Empire – had to face more complex challenges than most of the stable western … READ MORE
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In the context of the Russian economy’s spectacular collapse under the strain of the First World War and the 1917 revolution, this article analyses the two main phases of economic strategy in … READ MORE
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The armistices of 1918 officially ended the First World War in Europe, but violence did not cease with the signing of the peace treaties. Fighting continued not only on the periphery, in Archangelsk … READ MORE
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Although in late 1918 countries of East Central Europe had different forms of government and military situations, they all faced similar social problems. First, the wartime ethnicization reached its … READ MORE
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In contrast with the war in the West and its aftermath, the First World War in Eastern Europe did not come to an end in 1918, but instead gave rise to wars of national independence and to a prolonged … READ MORE
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The situation of the press in East Central Europe worsened after the outbreak of the First World War. There was a temporary growth in readership as a result of a desire for information. This did not, … READ MORE
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Tsarist censorship strictly limited the information about military operations that could appear in the press. However, it could not stem the increasing criticism of the government. One of the main … READ MORE
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This article is devoted to the main stages and areas of military planning in Russia on the eve of WWI which led to a compromise between supporters of defensive and offensive strategies in 1912. Among … READ MORE
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During the war, hundreds of thousands of East Central Europeans mobilised to the imperial armies of Austro-Hungary, Russia, and Germany were taken prisoner. Beyond the ordinary problems of POWs such … READ MORE
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This article explores the particularities of the situation of prisoners of war (POWs) in Russia and the implications of the domestic political situation in Russia on the fate of POWs. The upheaval in … READ MORE
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This article discusses the content and impact of various propaganda strategies which were used in East Central Europe by warring powers, local political parties and national organizations during the … READ MORE
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This article studies the main institutions, forms, content, means, and degree of effectiveness of Russian propaganda during the years of the First World War. The features of state and unofficial … READ MORE
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This article discusses the influence the Russian Revolution had on countries in East Central Europe. In the Polish Kingdom and Lithuania there was no direct impact because of the German occupation. … READ MORE
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The Russian Revolution was one of the most influential events to emerge from the furnace of the First World War. It transformed Russia and its Empire and firmly planted the flag of world revolution … READ MORE
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Although Russia made considerable progress in the decades preceding 1914, the onset of the First World War revealed the country's continuing dependency on foreign powers in sustaining its industrial, … READ MORE
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This essay analyzes social conflict in the Russian Empire during the Great War. It outlines the state of society prior to the war and the transition from initial social calm after the war’s … READ MORE
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Already in autumn 1914, East Central Europe became a main theatre of operational warfare and an object of strategic planning for the Central Powers, Russia, and later the Entente. After strategic … READ MORE
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Russia reluctantly entered the Great War to preserve its status as a great power. However, once the fighting began, it was the first amongst the Allies to state its territorial desiderata, which were … READ MORE
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Unlike the war on the Western Front, warfare in East Central Europe during the First World War was characterised by comparatively rapid movements, especially in 1915 and 1917/18. This manifested … READ MORE
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In late summer 1914 the Russian, German and Austrian armies engaged in intense battles from East Prussia to Galicia. After a prolonged siege through the winter of 1914-15 at the Austrian fortress of … READ MORE
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World War I was financially ruinous for the Russian government. Its decision to abolish the lucrative state spirits monopoly left a gaping hole in the budget. The Ministry of Finance opted to cover … READ MORE
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With about 5.5 million out of 16 million soldiers killed and wounded, the Russian Empire appears to have suffered less than France and Germany. But that does not take into account some other facts: … READ MORE
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As a total war, the First World War precipitated the involvement of thousands of Russian women, often in capacities that transcended previous war experiences, created new opportunities and … READ MORE
Regional Thematic
Encyclopedic Entries
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Mikhail Alekseyev was a Russian general who was the chief of staff of the general headquarters (''Stavka'') of the Russian army from August 1915 until May 1917. Yet, the military contribution of this … READ MORE
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Born Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, Aleksandra Fedorovna married the future Russian Emperor Nicholas II in 1894 and became empress. She was engaged in charity work and served as a nurse during the … READ MORE
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During World War I, the Russian military command was overtly anti-Semitic. Russian commanders pointed to the alleged disloyalty of Russia’s Jewish population. The Russian army expelled Jews from … READ MORE
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The Army of Islam, which was created by the order of Enver Pasha dated 5 April 1918, was a military force that performed operations in the summer of 1918 which resulted in the expansion of Ottoman … READ MORE
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The Republic of Azerbaijan is a majority Turkic and secular Muslim nation in the South Caucasus. This republic was proclaimed on 28 May 1918, during World War I. The Bolshevik invasion on 27 April … READ MORE
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The Battle of Baku was the conclusive battle that ended the war between the anti-Ottoman/anti-Musavatist forces in Baku and the Ottoman-Azerbaijani forces. The Army of Islam under the command of Nuri … READ MORE
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During the Estonian War of Independence, the Baltic Germans - despite their relatively small numbers - established their own military forces, the ''Baltenregiment'', in order to support the struggle. … READ MORE
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When Latvia felt endangered by the Bolsheviks they called for German help, since Germany had assisted in clearing the country from the Bolsheviks before. However, very soon tensions between the … READ MORE
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Invented in France in 1860, barbed wire was further developed in the United States, where it was used to restrict cattle and secure territory. Acquiring far more menacing qualities in the First World … READ MORE
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The Great War was a severe trial for Belarus and its population. It ruined the local economy and caused a massive exodus of refugees. An attempt to establish Belarusian statehood was made during the … READ MORE
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Jan Bloch was an entrepreneur, social activist and pacifist. At the end of his life, he published a comprehensive work in which he predicted the course and consequences of World War I. He warned of … READ MORE
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Jan Bloch was an entrepreneur, social activist and pacifist. At the end of his life, he published a comprehensive work in which he predicted the course and consequences of World War I. He warned of … READ MORE
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Elsa Brändström was the only neutral representative to work amongst prisoners of war (POWs) in Russia, Siberia, and Turkestan for five and a half years between winter between winter 1914 and summer … READ MORE
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Aleksei Alekseevich Brusilov was a Russian general in the First World War, successively holding the posts of commander of the 8th Army, commander the south-western front and supreme … READ MORE
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The Battle of Cēsis took place on 6-23 June 1919, near Cēsis, Latvia, during Latvian War of Independence. German units fought Estonian-Latvian units. The Estonian-Latvian victory led to the … READ MORE
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During the war, the Tsarist government imported large groups of Chinese to the Russian Empire to work behind the front lines. Despite their important contribution to the Russian war effort, Chinese … READ MORE
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Circassian nationalism refers to national movements among Adyghe people, a North Caucasian ethnic group. The term is also used to include other North Caucasian peoples who share historical … READ MORE
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Cossacks were warrior subjects who provided the tsars with mounted troops in return for land. The First World War and the revolutions of 1905 and 1917 brutalised and weakened the Cossack communities … READ MORE
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The Czechoslovak Legion was a military formation of Czechs, Slovaks, exiles, and former prisoners of war organized in Russia in 1914 to fight in the First World War. The article describes the history … READ MORE
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Ignacy Daszyński was one of the foremost figures on the Polish political scene in the first half of the 20th century. He personified a subset of elites who merged the struggle for social … READ MORE
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Following the Bolshevik seizure of power in October 1917, Lenin issued his Decree on Peace, calling for a truce and demanding that peace be agreed upon by people’s assemblies to be convened across … READ MORE
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Anton Ivanovich Denikin was a Russian general, politician and writer. He fought in the Russo-Japanese War, the First World War and the Russian Civil War. He is most famous as a leader of the White … READ MORE
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This is the first in what it is hoped will become a series of discussion forums hosted by ''1914-1918-online''. In this discussion forum, General Editor Peter Gatrell invited contributions that … READ MORE
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Roman Stanisław Dmowski was a Polish politician and most importantly the co-founder of National Democracy in Poland before the First World War and during the interwar period. He was also the … READ MORE
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In February 1917 two centres of power emerged to replace the tsarist government: the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet. The Provisional Government had formal authority but the Soviet … READ MORE
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The Tsar reluctantly granted an elected legislative assembly, the State Duma, during the 1905 Russian Revolution. The first two Dumas were dissolved amidst bitter conflict and the third did little to … READ MORE
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The First World War, the Russian revolutions of February and October 1917, and the ensuing Civil War created a wave of emigration from the territories of the Russian Empire into Western and Central … READ MORE
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World War I was not simply a conflict among European states but a global war of empires. The fighting took place not only in Europe, but also in Africa, Asia, and across the Middle East, and it … READ MORE
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During the First World War both sides accused each other of employing illegal small arms ammunition – either expanding or explosive bullets. The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 outlawed … READ MORE
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Fear
By Jan Plamper
Of the two world wars, the First World War was special in that fear figured prominently in a number of domains, including military tactics, psychiatry, and first-person sources. Fear was to be … READ MORE
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The Finnish Civil War was fought between the socialist Reds and the non-socialist Whites in the newly sovereign state. The conflict lasted from late January until mid-May 1918 and resulted in a White … READ MORE
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European militaries considered fortifications before the First World War as vital to their strategic planning. Advancements in weapons technology after the mid-19th century caused … READ MORE
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Juozas Gabrys was one of the major advocates of Lithuanian political aspirations in the international arena from 1911 to 1918. He contributed to the establishment of the Council of Lithuania in 1917. … READ MORE
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''Stavka Verkhovnogo Glavnokomanduyushchego'' was the centre of the field command of the Russian army, the headquarters of the supreme commander and his staff in … READ MORE
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World War One was a catalyst for Georgian independence, which was declared on 26 May 1918. The war demonstrated the significance of Georgian territories as a transit route and source of raw materials … READ MORE
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Grigorovich was Navy Minister between 1911 and 1917. He sought cooperation with parliament and secured funds to rebuild fleets ravaged by war with Japan. His support for mobilisation in 1914 helped … READ MORE
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General Vassillii Iosifovich Gurko was a Russian military commander during the First World War. Between November 1916 and February 1917 he was the chief of staff in the General Headquarters of the … READ MORE
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General Józef Haller was one of the best known Polish military commanders of the First World War period, a lieutenant of the Polish Legions, commander of the II Brigade of the Polish Legions, … READ MORE
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The so-called “Wars of Independence” in the Baltics were part of a larger conflict and continuing warfare in Eastern Europe. After the proclamations of independence and the November Armistice, … READ MORE
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Russian-Jewish author, playwright, journalist, orator, and political activist; co-founder of the Zion Mule Corps (1915-16) and the Jewish Legion (1917-21, the unofficial name of the 38th Battalion of … READ MORE
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The Finnish Jäger movement recruited approximately 2,000 men to the German Armed Forces during the First World War. After their service on the Eastern Front, the Jägers formed the cadres of the … READ MORE
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In July 1917, economic chaos and unpopular preparations for military action provoked armed demonstrations by workers and troops demanding the Petrograd Soviet take power from Russia’s Provisional … READ MORE
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Aleksandr Kerenskii was Minister of War in Russia’s Provisional Government from April to October 1917 and Prime Minister from July to October. He embodied the hopes of the February Revolution of … READ MORE
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Aleksandr Vasil'evich Kolchak was a Russian admiral and political figure. He participated in the Russo-Japanese War, the First World War, and the Russian Civil War. He was one of the leaders of the … READ MORE
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Kornilov rose rapidly in the Russian army during the First World War, becoming Commander-in-Chief in July 1917. In August, he sent troops into Petrograd, demanding all military and civil authority be … READ MORE
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The Battle of Kostiuchnówka occurred during the Brusilov Offensive in the Volhynia region on 4–6 July 1916. It was fought between the Austro-Hungarian Corps under General Leopold Hauer’s command … READ MORE
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This article details the mutiny of two Russian brigades sent to France in World War I. The less rebellious of the two was finally disciplined and used to suppress the unruly brigade in 1917 in what … READ MORE
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Johan Laidoner, Estonian general and statesman, started his career in the Russian army during World War I. He was crucial in establishing an Estonian army, which he commanded in the War of … READ MORE
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The Latvian Riflemen were Latvian territorial units comprised of nine battalions, referred to as regiments from 1916 on, in the Russian army. They were active on the Northern Front (Riga) between … READ MORE
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In World War I Lemberg (German: Lemberg, Ukrainian: Lviv, Polish: Lwów) played an important role as a political and administrative center of Galicia and was of great strategic significance as one of … READ MORE
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Vladimir Il’ich Lenin was the founder and leader of the Bolshevik Party and of the Soviet state up until his death. Theoretically and practically he combined the strategy of a socialist revolution … READ MORE
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Between 1914 and 1918, the machine gun played an ever-increasing role on the battlefield. Today, even though artillery was responsible for the majority of deaths, the machine gun is the weapon most … READ MORE
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Nestor Makhno was a commander of peasant insurgents who fought the Bolsheviks, Whites and Ukrainian nationalists in the South East of present-day Ukraine. His espousal of anarchism has won him … READ MORE
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A Finnish aristocrat, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim served as cavalry commander in the Imperial Russian army during the First World War. After the Russian Revolution, he commanded Finnish White forces … READ MORE
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One of the founders and leaders of the Constitutional Democratic Party, Pavel Nikolaevich Miliukov took an active part in the organisation of the Progressive Bloc. He made a famous speech in the Duma … READ MORE
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During the First World War, at least half a million Muslim soldiers fought in the Russian Army. In spite of efforts of the Ottoman Empire to mobilize Russia’s Muslims against their rulers, Muslim … READ MORE
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Nicholas II ruled Russia from 1894 and was commander of the army from September 1915 until his abdication in March 1917 amidst popular demonstrations against bread shortages, the war and autocracy. … READ MORE
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Nikolai Nikolaevich, a senior Russian officer and close relative of Tsar Nicholas II, was involved in attempts to reform the Russian army from 1905. He was named Commander-in-Chief at the onset of … READ MORE
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The Gorlice-Tarnów Offensive of May/June 1915 was a major military success for Austria-Hungary and Germany on the Eastern Front. Following the joint campaign of the Central Powers, the Russian army … READ MORE
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Ignacy Jan Paderewski was a virtuoso pianist. He made use of his popularity in the United States and western Europe to propagate the idea of Polish independence and state sovereignty. In … READ MORE
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Konstantin Päts, a leading Estonian politician, was a key figure in the establishment of Estonian independence during and after World War I. In 1934, he and Johan Laidoner organized a putsch and … READ MORE
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During the Russian Civil War, peasant uprisings swept the former Russian Empire. In 1918 and 1919, these uprisings were mainly local responses to requisitioning and conscription. In 1920 and 1921, … READ MORE
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Józef Klemens Piłsudski was a Polish statesman, socialist politician, freedom fighter, and soldier. He commanded the Polish Legions during the First World War, and served as the first chief of … READ MORE
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The Bayonne Company was the first Polish unit in France, formed in 1914 as a unit of the French Foreign Legion. The Polish Army in France was created in June 1917 and consisted of volunteers. After … READ MORE
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In the 19th century, the German-Polish borderlands became the object of nationalist designs on both sides. After 1871, the German nation-state sought to limit Polish citizens’ room for … READ MORE
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The ''Związek Legionistów Polskich'' (Polish Legionaries Union), or ZLP, was an association of veterans of Polish Legions who had fought under Józef Piłsudski for Poland’s independence during … READ MORE
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At the outbreak of the Great War, two Polish Legions were formed within the Austro-Hungarian army. They eventually increased to three brigades that participated in a series of important campaigns in … READ MORE
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The Polish-Lithuanian border conflict (1914-1924) was a consequence of the processes of modernisation and the course of the First World War. Following the creation of the states of Lithuania and … READ MORE
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The Polish Army was born out of the chaos of revolutionary Russia. The Russian authorities accepted its establishment, and later the army sought an agreement with the occupying Germans. Polish units … READ MORE
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Polish paramilitary organizations were active in Galicia from 1910 to 1914 with the permission of the Austro-Hungarian army’s intelligence service. Their ostensible aim was to militarily train … READ MORE
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The hostilities between Bolshevik Russia and Poland started as early as 1919. In April 1920, Poland and Ukraine liberated Kiev from Bolshevik control. However, in the summer of 1919, the Bolsheviks … READ MORE
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The Polish-Ukrainian conflict over Eastern Galicia in 1918-19 refers to an armed conflict between Poland and the West Ukrainian National Republic (''Zakhidnoukrayins’ka Narodna Respublika,'' ZUNR). … READ MORE
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Prostitution was considered among the most important societal problems facing civilian-military authorities in belligerent countries during World War I. Despite growing military control of the … READ MORE
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When the tsarist government collapsed in February 1917, liberal politicians from the State Duma (parliament), later joined by moderate socialists, formed a Provisional Government. Unable to satisfy … READ MORE
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Vast land area, sparse population density, inconsistent tsarist policy, and underdeveloped industry prevented Russian railroads from growth before and during the First World War. In 1913 the general … READ MORE
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Although rape was not usually systematic, it occurred frequently on all fronts during the First World War, during both invasion and occupation periods. It was often used in propaganda to discredit … READ MORE
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Rasputin was a peasant turned pilgrim who became a close associate of the Russian royal family. Accounts of his wartime influence on government may be exaggerated but public perceptions of his power … READ MORE
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Reconnaissance was aviation’s most important mission in the Great War. When war began, aircraft only performed observation and reconnaissance. The speed of intelligence gathered by aircraft changed … READ MORE
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The Red Army was a paradoxical force created by a party deeply suspicious of regular armies. It had many problems and flaws, but its creation was a prerequisite to the Bolshevik victory in the Civil … READ MORE
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German and Austrian advances in 1914 and 1915, together with policies of the Russian military authorities, created millions of refugees in the Russian empire. These refugees suffered immense hardship … READ MORE
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Social and political unrest swept the Russian Empire in 1905, forcing the autocratic tsarist regime to grant the creation of a popularly-elected legislative body; the State Duma. However, the army … READ MORE
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The Treaty of Riga was signed by Poland and the Soviet state on 18 March 1921 and was preceded by a preliminary treaty of 12 October 1920. It ended the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-1920 and was a … READ MORE
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The Russian Expeditionary Force in France and in Macedonia (“Brigades russes en France et en Macédoine” in French and “Russkij èkspedicionnyj korpus” in Russian) was an ensemble of four … READ MORE
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The Russian Expeditionary Force in France and in Macedonia (“Brigades russes en France et en Macédoine” in French and “Russkij èkspedicionnyj korpus” in Russian) was an ensemble of four … READ MORE
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The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, caused by Russian and Japanese expansionism in the Far East, inflicted humiliating defeats on Russia at land and sea. The war contributed to domestic unrest in … READ MORE
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Sergei Sazonov became Russian Foreign Minister in autumn 1910. In July 1914 he argued for a firm stance against Austrian aggression and general mobilisation of the army, but historians dispute his … READ MORE
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In 1914, quick-firing field artillery could fire more shells than domestic industries, geared to peacetime consumption levels, could supply. Armies, although recognizing the dangers, had … READ MORE
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Boris Shtiurmer was Prime Minister from January to November 1916, also serving as Interior Minister between March and July 1916 and Minister of Foreign Affairs from July to November. Denunciations of … READ MORE
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Woodrow Wilson proposed a joint intervention with Japan to “rescue” the Czech legion in 1918. Japan dispatched 72,000 troops to Siberia. Allied intervention ended after the collapse of the White … READ MORE
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The Ukrainian Sich Riflemen (''Ukrains’ki Sičovi stril’tsi,'' USS) was a Ukrainian battalion within the Austro-Hungarian army. The USS was active in the defense of the Eastern Front in World War … READ MORE
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During the First World War, political writer and editor of Lithuanian magazines, Antanas Smetona in 1917 became chairman of the Council of Lithuania, which declared Lithuania as an independent state … READ MORE
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During the First World War, governments, civilians and soldiers alike prized smoking for its morale-boosting qualities, in addition to a medicinal effect following combat and periods of intense … READ MORE
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Spy Fever describes an anxiety or paranoia that enemy spies might be active within one’s own nation. The phenomenon was widespread in all theatres of World War I from at least August of 1914. Most … READ MORE
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Joseph Stalin lived in Siberian exile from 1913 until the revolution of March 1917. During the early period after the “February Revolution”, as well as during the year November 1917 to November … READ MORE
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This article summarises the main wartime stereotypes that defined war propaganda in Germany, France, Great Britain, the USA and Russia. It focuses less on particular details of each national enemy … READ MORE
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Having gained success throughout Europe with his compositions for the ''Ballets Russes'' (centered in Paris), Russian-born Igor Stravinsky took refuge from World War I in Switzerland from 1914 to … READ MORE
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Fought between the Finnish Red and White forces from 15 March to 6 April 1918, the Battle of Tampere was the decisive confrontation of the Finnish Civil War. After a siege and bombardment, the White … READ MORE
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The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Warsaw was originally built to honor the fallen Polish soldiers of the wars from 1914 to 1921. After the First World War the Cult of the Unknown Soldier … READ MORE
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Before and at the beginning of World War I, various proposals concerning the creation of a third part of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy were brought up for discussion. Each of the aspiring groups … READ MORE
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Leon Trotsky's communist leadership was partially responsible for bringing about the October Revolution of 1917, after which Russia exited the First World War. Starting as an activist, he became … READ MORE
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The province of Turkestan - modern-day Central Asia -, a Russian military colony since 1865-1875, truly entered WWI in 1916, when Tsar Nicholas II and his military staff decided, on 7 July (Gregorian … READ MORE
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At the beginning of the 20th century Ukrainian lands were part of the Austro-Hungarian (Galicia, Transcarpathia, Bukovina) and Russian (the nine right-bank and left-bank provinces) … READ MORE
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Kārlis Ulmanis was the first prime minister of the Republic of Latvia. His four terms of office saw the successful conclusion of the Latvian War of … READ MORE
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The ''Union des Nationalités'', alternatively called the ''Office Central des Nationalités'' or ''Bureau des Nationalités'', was created in 1912 in Paris and remained in existence until 1919. Its … READ MORE
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The Unions of Zemstvos and of Towns mobilised local self-government bodies and professional specialists to provide medical aid to soldiers, relief for refugees and orphans and assistance in army … READ MORE
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Jukums Vācietis commanded the 5th ''Zemgale'' Latvian Rifle Battalion. After the October Revolution he sided with the Bolsheviks and became the first commander-in-chief of the Soviet … READ MORE
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During the First World War, as professor at the University of Perm (Russia), Augustinas Voldemaras actively participated in the activities of Lithuanian exiles in Russia. In 1917 he argued for … READ MORE
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The Volunteer Army was the operational formation of anti-Bolshevik forces in South Russia during the period of the Civil War. This army became the basis of the organization of the White Movement. … READ MORE
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The governments of all belligerent countries issued special loans to finance their expenditure after the war began. To mobilize the financial resources of their peoples required concerted war bonds … READ MORE
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War Communism refers to policies, particularly economic, pursued by the Bolsheviks during the Civil War in response to the ideological and pragmatic demands of consolidating power. It was abandoned … READ MORE
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War Industry Committees were an attempt by Russian industrialists to mobilise the Russian economy for the war effort. They made some contribution to easing supply problems but mutual mistrust between … READ MORE
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Wireless telegraphy became an integral part of warfare on the ground, in the air, and at sea by 1918. Wireless helped to make the war global, though historians still debate its impact on the course … READ MORE
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Petr Nikolaevich Wrangel was a Russian general and political leader. He participated in the Russo-Japanese War, the First World War, and the Russian Civil War. He was one of the leaders of the White … READ MORE
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Nikolaĭ Yudenich was one of the most successful Russian commanders in World War One. He demonstrated admirable consistency in achieving victories on the Caucasus Front. During the Russian Civil War, … READ MORE
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