Regions Austria-Hungary

Survey Articles (Regional)

• Austria-Hungary

  By Pieter M. Judson

  

  The article surveys the social and military history of Austria-Hungary during the First World War. The war brought a harsh military dictatorship along with innovations in economy, labor deployment, … READ MORE

  Regional

Regional Thematic Articles

• Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Austria-Hungary)

  By Richard Lein

  

  Since the end of World War One it has generally been accepted that the collapse of the Habsburg Monarchy was primarily caused by friction among its ethnic groups. It has furthermore been alleged that … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Centenary (Czech Republic)

  By Jan Adamec

  The article describes commemorative acts and festivities marking the centenary of the Great War in the Czech Republic from 2014 to 2018. It examines the trend of individuals exploring their private … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Centenary (Hungary)

  By Peter Ferwagner

  

  In Hungary, World War I commemorations have been mainly organized by the Centenary Commemorative Committee, which is government-run. The committee supports a wide range of cultural programmes, from … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Centenary (Slovakia)

  By Michal Kšiňan

  

  Slovakia has a double memory of World War I: the one of former Austro-Hungarian soldiers’ suffering that was more underlined in 2014 and the victorious/heroic one of the Czechoslovak legionnaires … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Civilian and Military Power (Austria-Hungary)

  By Hermann Kuprian and Nicole-Melanie Goll

  

  The relationship between civilian and military power in Austria-Hungary during the First World War was determined by a number of factors, including the dual state structure and the controversial … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Food and Nutrition (Austria-Hungary)

  By Ernst Langthaler

  

  Food became a scarce – and thus decisive – resource for the Habsburg Empire’s warfare. Agricultural production in Austria-Hungary dramatically deteriorated due to causes more or less related to … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Austria)

  By John W. Boyer

  

  The closing of the parliament in Vienna in spring 1914 led to the consolidation of a wartime regime that was at once autocratic, decentralized, and poorly equipped to handle the demands of competing … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Governments-Parliaments and Parties (Hungary)

  By András Joó

  

  Political life in the Hungarian part of the Dual Monarchy (particularly the constitutional framework, political traditions and mentality) can only be characterized as very different from that of the … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Historiography 1918-Today (Austria-Hungary)

  By Hannes Leidinger

  Apart from a few brief words regarding the relevant scientific work of international scholars, this article focuses primarily on Austrian World War I historiography from 1918 to the present. Hence, … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Labour, Labour Movements, Trade Unions and Strikes (Austria-Hungary)

  By Jakub Beneš

  

  The First World War was a period of repression and severe privation in Austria-Hungary. The organized labor movement was heavily constrained and its leaders resorted to a strategy of compliance with … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Literature (Austria-Hungary)

  By Monika Szczepaniak

  

  This article considers the links between Austrian literature and the First World War, particularly reactions to the war within the genres of poetry, narrative prose, drama and journalism. It will … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Nationalities (Austria-Hungary)

  By Rok Stergar

  

  Recent research has questioned the view that that the population of Austria-Hungary consisted of nations, and that conflicts between them were the main cause of its demise. Nationalism was an … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Occupation during and after the War (Austria-Hungary)

  By Wolfram Dornik

  

  While on the Western Front there were only limited territorial movements, the Eastern Front and warfare in southeastern Europe, including parts of Italy, had all the characteristics of mobile … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Organization of War Economies (Austria-Hungary)

  By Felix Butschek

  

  This article describes the structure and development of the Austro-Hungarian war economy during World War I. It explains the dynamic process that took place within Austria-Hungary’s economy during … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Post-war Economies (Austria-Hungary)

  By Walter M. Iber

  

  The Austrian economy went through several phases in the interwar period, beginning with general post-war misery and massive currency devaluation. This article focuses on the immediate post-war period … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Post-war Societies (Austria)

  By Hannes Leidinger

  The following deliberations approach the “post-war” situation of the young Austrian republic from 1918 onwards. This article addresses the short and long-term consequences of the First World War … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Post-war Societies (Czechoslovakia)

  By Ota Konrád

  

  Although the Czechoslovak Republic experienced social breakdown and a wave of violence in the immediate post-war years, as did other countries in the region, it managed to overcome the postwar shock … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Post-war Turmoil and Violence (Hungary)

  By Tamás Révész

  

  In November 1918, massive popular unrest broke out in the Hungarian countryside, followed by a short but intense borderland war against the Czechoslovakian and Romanian army. Meanwhile, from the … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Press/Journalism (Austria-Hungary)

  By Petronilla Ehrenpreis

  

  The undisputed superiority of the Western Powers, above all Great Britain in the domain of propaganda together with the collapse of Austria-Hungary suggest that the Hapsburg monarchy was militarily … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Pre-war Military Planning (Austria-Hungary)

  By Günther Kronenbitter

  

  Austria-Hungary’s General Staff enjoyed a monopoly on war planning. Its long-time Chief Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf worked hard to improve the Habsburg Monarchy’s war preparations and the basic … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Prisoners of War (Austria-Hungary)

  By Verena Moritz and Julia Walleczek-Fritz

  

  The following article offers an overview of the central fields of research concerning Prisoners of war (POWs) in the Habsburg Empire during World War One, including living conditions in war camps, … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Propaganda at Home (Austria-Hungary)

  By Mark Cornwall

  

  In wartime Austria-Hungary, propaganda’s usefulness for manipulating public opinion and upholding morale was slowly realized. Various types of official and unofficial propaganda then emerged in … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Revolutions (Austria-Hungary)

  By Hannes Leidinger

  The following pages - focusing on the collapse of the Habsburg Empire and the incidents in Austria in 1918/20 - are subdivided into four different periods and aspects: Firstly, World War One until … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Science and Technology (Austria-Hungary)

  By Andreas Gottsmann

  

  Thorough research has been carried out only on some subfields within the history of science related to the Habsburg Monarchy during World War I. The most well-documented innovations are those in the … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Social Conflict and Control, Protest and Repression (Austria-Hungary)

  By Maureen Healy, Dana Bronson and Musa Jemal

  

  This essay traces the experience on the plural home fronts of the Habsburg Empire. With a primary focus on the imperial city, Vienna, it also offers glimpses into the conditions in Hungary and the … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• Tactics, Army (Austria-Hungary)

  By M. Christian Ortner

  

  The development of Austria-Hungary’s combat doctrine started in 1914 at a typical peacetime level, ignoring more or less most of the modern experiences in Africa and Asia in the early … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• The Internment of Russophiles in Austria-Hungary

  By Serhiy Choliy

  

  The internment of “suspicious persons” became a widespread practice and an important component of home front actions during WWI. This entry discusses the Austro-Hungarian internment of parts of … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Austria-Hungary)

  By Samuel R. Williamson, Jr.

  

  In July 1914 the Habsburg monarchy went to war with Serbia declaring it sought no territorial gain from the struggle. Soon discussions of possible territorial acquisitions, along with economic and … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• War Finance (Austria-Hungary)

  By Ágnes Pogány

  

  The article presents a new estimate of the war costs and an overview of war finances in Austria and Hungary. Both countries of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy were unprepared to meet growing war … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

• War Losses (Austria-Hungary)

  By Anatol Schmied-Kowarzik

  

  Estimates of the total losses of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces range from 1.1 to 1.2 million in addition to 450,000 deceased prisoners of war and 300,000 soldiers who stayed missed after war. The … READ MORE

  Regional Thematic

Encyclopedic Entries

• Adler, Victor

  By Jakub Beneš

  

  Until his death in 1918, Victor Adler was the most prominent Austrian socialist leader and among the leading personalities of the Second Socialist International. During the war, he aimed to preserve … READ MORE

  Entry

• Austro-Hungarian Enemy Aliens (USA)

  By Nicole M. Phelps

  Austrian and Hungarian citizens working in war-related industries were exempt from many restrictions on enemy aliens, but many labor leaders and intellectuals were arrested and interned, often … READ MORE

  Entry

• Automobile Industry (Austria-Hungary)

  By Walter Blasi

  

  The Austro-Hungarian automotive industry and the necessary equipment for military vehicles developed very slowly in comparison to other European states. During the First World War, the army had to … READ MORE

  Entry

• Ballhausplatz

  By William D. Godsey

  

  The Imperial and Royal Ministry of the Imperial and Royal House and of Foreign Affairs, informally called “Ballhausplatz” after the Viennese square on which the central office was located, was … READ MORE

  Entry

• Bauer, Otto

  By Jakub Beneš

  

  Otto Bauer was a leading Austro-Marxist and socialist politician who served during the war as an officer in the Austro-Hungarian army. After returning from Russian internment to Vienna in 1917, he … READ MORE

  Entry

• Beneš, Edvard

  By René Küpper

  

  Edvard Beneš was a Czech politician, diplomat, and close collaborator of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. As Secretary General of the Czechoslovak National Council in Paris from 1916 to 1918, he … READ MORE

  Entry

• Berchtold, Leopold Graf

  By Samuel R. Williamson, Jr.

  

  Graf Leopold Berchtold, Habsburg foreign minister from 1912 to 1915, was confronted with military action during and after the Balkan Wars, yet kept peace. Then, the Sarajevo assassinations, blamed on … READ MORE

  Entry

• Bosniak Regiments (Austria-Hungary)

  By Christoph Neumayer

  

  Following the decisions of the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Austria-Hungary occupied the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. From 1882 onwards, members of all ethnicities in Bosnia-Herzegovina were … READ MORE

  Entry

• Bosnian Crisis

  By Marc Stefan Peters

  

  In the narrow sense, the so-called “Bosnian Crisis” (or “Annexation Crisis”) of 1908 and 1909 was a political conflict between Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire caused by the (formal) … READ MORE

  Entry

• Burián von Rajecz, István, Graf

  By Marvin Benjamin Fried

  

  István Burián was a leading Austro-Hungarian career diplomat and politician, rising to become the Monarchy’s longest-serving foreign minister during the First World War. Burián’s wartime … READ MORE

  Entry

• Cattaro, Mutiny of

  By Paul Lenormand

  

  The mutiny of the sailors on Cattaro, the Austrian-Hungarian Navy Base, occurred on 1 February 1918. The incident ended with the mutineers surrendering. Even if the revolt did not significantly … READ MORE

  Entry

• Charles I, Emperor of Austria

  By Robert Rill

  

  In his youth, the archduke was introduced to the idea of federalism by Archduke Franz Ferdinand. During the first part of World War I, he became a skillful military leader without any political … READ MORE

  Entry

• Concept of Mitteleuropa

  By Maciej Górny

  

  Friedrich Naumann’s ''Mitteleuropa'' (1915) was a liberal voice in the largely illiberal German discussion on the future of East Central and South East Europe. His reasoning, based on principles of … READ MORE

  Entry

• Conrad von Hötzendorf, Franz Xaver Josef Graf

  By Claudia Reichl-Ham

  

  Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf was an Austrian officer and Chief of the General Staff of the Austro-Hungarian Army from 1906 to 1911 and from 1912 to … READ MORE

  Entry

• Czechoslovak-Hungarian Border Conflict

  By Aliaksandr Piahanau

  

  From 1918–1920, Czechoslovakia and Hungary claimed their rights over Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia, two former Hungarian provinces with a Slavic majority. Czech troops occupied Slovakia and … READ MORE

  Entry

• Czernin, Ottokar Graf

  By Robert Rill

  Ottokar Graf Czernin was an Austrian politician and the minister of foreign affairs for Austria-Hungary from 1916 to … READ MORE

  Entry

• Empire

  By Erez Manela

  

  World War I was not simply a conflict among European states but a global war of empires. The fighting took place not only in Europe, but also in Africa, Asia, and across the Middle East, and it … READ MORE

  Entry

• Expanding Bullets

  By Paul Cornish

  

  During the First World War both sides accused each other of employing illegal small arms ammunition – either expanding or explosive bullets. The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 outlawed … READ MORE

  Entry

• Fear

  By Jan Plamper

  

  Of the two world wars, the First World War was special in that fear figured prominently in a number of domains, including military tactics, psychiatry, and first-person sources. Fear was to be … READ MORE

  Entry

• Feminist Pacifism

  By Annika Wilmers

  

  A minority section of the women’s movements opposed World War I and organized the International Congress of Women at The Hague in April 1915. Its participants demanded women’s rights and more … READ MORE

  Entry

• Forts

  By Miguel A. Lopez

  

  European militaries considered fortifications before the First World War as vital to their strategic planning. Advancements in weapons technology after the mid-19^th century caused … READ MORE

  Entry

• Francis Joseph I, Emperor of Austria

  By Lothar Höbelt

  

  Under the terms of the 1867 constitution, Francis Joseph retained his prerogatives in foreign policy. His decision to opt for war in 1914 was largely a result of the frustrations of Austria’s … READ MORE

  Entry

• Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria-Este

  By Paul Miller

  

  This biographical overview of Archduke Franz Ferdinand examines the evolution of his difficult personality through the traumatic experiences of barely surviving tuberculosis and fighting for the … READ MORE

  Entry

• Freud, Sigmund

  By Maciej Górny

  

  Sigmund Freud, the founding father of psychoanalysis, expressed a war-weariness and disappointment with the barbarity of the war that, after the final dissolution of the Habsburg Empire, gave way to … READ MORE

  Entry

• Germany's Blank Cheque to Austria-Hungary

  By William Mulligan

  

  Germany’s offer of unconditional support to its Austro-Hungarian ally in July 1914 remains one of the most controversial decisions in modern history. Historians have interpreted the blank cheque in … READ MORE

  Entry

• Horthy, Miklós

  By Catherine Horel

  

  Horthy was a naval officer of Austria-Hungary. During the First World War he was first in command of a cruiser and then chief commander of the navy. After the war he took part in the … READ MORE

  Entry

• Islam in Austria-Hungary

  By Edin Hajdarpasic

  

  During the First World War, mobilizing Muslim soldiers and Islamic institutions became an important international concern for Austria-Hungary. This article looks at how the Habsburg Monarchy tried to … READ MORE

  Entry

• Kraus, Karl

  By Ari Linden

  

  Karl Kraus was one of the 20^th century’s most significant satirists. While his primary target was the Austrian press, his satire took aim at nationalism, parochialism, unrestrained … READ MORE

  Entry

• Kun, Béla

  By Boldizsár Vörös

  

  Béla Kun was a Hungarian communist politician. He began his career as a social democrat. During the First World War he was captured by the Russians and later became a Bolshevik in Russia. From 1918 … READ MORE

  Entry

• Lemberg

  By Claudia Reichl-Ham

  

  In World War I Lemberg (German: Lemberg, Ukrainian: Lviv, Polish: Lwów) played an important role as a political and administrative center of Galicia and was of great strategic significance as one of … READ MORE

  Entry

• Machine Gun

  By Paul Cornish

  

  Between 1914 and 1918, the machine gun played an ever-increasing role on the battlefield. Today, even though artillery was responsible for the majority of deaths, the machine gun is the weapon most … READ MORE

  Entry

• Markl Internment Camp

  By Reinhard Mundschütz

  

  During the years 1915 to 1918 in the internment camp in Markl (Windigsteig), in Lower Austria, up to 1,400 mostly Jewish persons of Russian-Polish and Russian origin were incarcerated. They already … READ MORE

  Entry

• Martial Law

  By Steven R. Welch

  Martial law refers to the exercise of governmental power over the civilian population by military authorities. The use of martial law varied among belligerent countries, and its geographical scope … READ MORE

  Entry

• Masaryk, Tomáš Garrigue

  By René Küpper

  

  Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk was a Czech politician who started the Czechoslovak independence movement abroad. As head of the Czechoslovak National Council from 1916 to 1918, he provided an ideological … READ MORE

  Entry

• Mediterranean Theater, Naval Operations

  By Paul G. Halpern

  

  The real naval war in the Mediterranean turned out to be a struggle against German and Austrian submarines and not a classic battle between major … READ MORE

  Entry

• Music

  By Akeo Okada

  

  The First World War fundamentally changed the course of 20^th century music. The era of late Romanticism, Symbolism and Expressionism had ended, the music culture of the European high … READ MORE

  Entry

• Musil, Robert

  By Oliver Pfohlmann

  The Austrian writer Robert Musil served as a soldier throughout the entire period of the war, first for border security in South Tyrol/Trentino, later on the Italian Front (“Mountain war”), and … READ MORE

  Entry

• Offensive, Gorlice-Tarnow

  By Richard Lein

  

  The Gorlice-Tarnów Offensive of May/June 1915 was a major military success for Austria-Hungary and Germany on the Eastern Front. Following the joint campaign of the Central Powers, the Russian army … READ MORE

  Entry

• Panslavism

  By Rok Stergar

  

  Panslavism was a movement based on the conviction that all speakers of Slavic languages belong to a single nation. This was a starting point for the activities that aimed to bring Slav cultures and … READ MORE

  Entry

• Petroleum

  By Oliver Gliech

  

  In World War I, the mobility of troops was of major strategic importance. New transportation means like trucks, as well as war planes, submarines and tanks, which began to revolutionize warfare … READ MORE

  Entry

• Prochaska Affair

  By Richard C. Hall

  

  The Prochaska Affair was a diplomatic dispute between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, ostensibly concerning the fate of the Austro-Hungarian consul in Prizren. However, it carried deeper implications for … READ MORE

  Entry

• Prostitution

  By Journey Steward

  

  Prostitution was considered among the most important societal problems facing civilian-military authorities in belligerent countries during World War I. Despite growing military control of the … READ MORE

  Entry

• Redl, Alfred

  By Günther Kronenbitter

  

  On 25 May 1913 Colonel Alfred Redl, the former head of Austria-Hungary’s military espionage, committed suicide in Vienna. As it turned out, Redl had betrayed Austria-Hungary’s spy-network in … READ MORE

  Entry

• Refugees (Austria-Hungary)

  By Francesco Frizzera

  

  During World War I, about 1.1 million refugees sought refuge in the interior of Austria-Hungary. The coexistence between the host communities and refugees in the interior was difficult, due to … READ MORE

  Entry

• Renner, Karl

  By Paul Dvorak

  

  Karl Renner quickly became one of the main theoreticians of a policy of support for the war effort. He saw World War I as a chance for social democratic advance, with state intervention laying the … READ MORE

  Entry

• Roth, Joseph

  By Ilse Josepha Lazaroms

  

  Joseph Roth was a Jewish writer and journalist. His experiences at the Eastern Front in Galicia in 1916–1917 and the demise of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy after the war had a lasting impact on … READ MORE

  Entry

• Ruggera, Camillo

  By Nicola Fontana

  

  Camillo Ruggera was an officer of the General Staff in the Austro-Hungarian army. Assigned to the Supreme Command, on 29 October 1918 he was commissioned to make contact with the leaders of the … READ MORE

  Entry

• Saint-Germain, Treaty of

  By Peter Haslinger

  

  The Treaty of Saint-Germain was signed by Austria and twenty-seven Allied and associated countries in the ''Château Neuf'' in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, southwest of Paris, on 10 September 1919. It … READ MORE

  Entry

• Sanjak of Novi Pazar

  By Tamara Scheer

  

  Although ''sanjak'' usually means any one of many Ottoman administrative units, one has become known as “the Sanjak.” Following the Treaty of Berlin the Sanjak of Novi Pazar became the symbol of … READ MORE

  Entry

• Sarajevo Incident

  By Samuel Foster

  

  The Sarajevo incident refers to the events surrounding the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife Archduchess Sophie during a state visit to … READ MORE

  Entry

• Sarkotić von Lovćen, Stephan Freiherr

  By Marc Stefan Peters

  

  Stephan Baron von Sarkotić was an Austro-Hungarian general who had already made his mark as a political officer prior to the outbreak of World War I. During the war, he formulated different … READ MORE

  Entry

• Schalek, Alice

  By Christian Rapp

  

  This article deals with the activities of journalist and photographer Alice Schalek as war correspondent during the Great War. Between 1915 and 1917 Schalek reported from the South Tyrolean, Isonzo … READ MORE

  Entry

• Sixtus Affair

  By Robert Rill

  

  The Sixtus Affair was the failed attempt by Emperor Charles I. of Austria and his bother-in-law Prince Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma to conclude a compromise peace with the members of the Entente-Powers … READ MORE

  Entry

• Smoking and Cigarette Consumption

  By Michael Reeve

  

  During the First World War, governments, civilians and soldiers alike prized smoking for its morale-boosting qualities, in addition to a medicinal effect following combat and periods of intense … READ MORE

  Entry

• Soldiers' Equipment

  By Dieter Storz

  

  The soldier’s personal equipment had a dual purpose: it was intended to enable him to carry out his military duties, and it was supposed to guarantee, independent of stationary installations, the … READ MORE

  Entry

• Štefánik, Milan Rastislav

  By Michal Kšiňan

  

  Milan Rastislav Štefánik was a Slovak astronomer, diplomat, politician, general, one of the organizers of the Czechoslovak legions and one of the founding fathers of Czechoslovakia. In today’s … READ MORE

  Entry

• Stormtrooper

  By Ralf Raths

  

  Storm troopers were soldiers in specialized assault units, which emerged in the German army during the First World … READ MORE

  Entry

• Stürgkh, Karl Graf

  By Martin Moll

  

  Karl Graf von Stürgkh was an Austrian member of the Imperial Council, Minister for Education, and Minister President of Cisleithania from 3 November 1911 until his assassination on 21 October 1916 … READ MORE

  Entry

• Suttner, Bertha von

  By Laurie Cohen

  

  Bertha von Suttner (1843-1914) was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1905. She wrote an internationally acclaimed antiwar novel ''Die Waffen nieder!'' (''Lay Down Your Arms!'') and co-founded the … READ MORE

  Entry

• The Good Soldier Švejk (novel)

  By Maciej Górny

  

  ''Osudy dobrého vojaka Švejka za světové války'' (''The Good Soldier Švejk'') by Jaroslav Hašek belongs to the most valuable and informative artistic accounts of the Great War. Despite an … READ MORE

  Entry

• The Last Days of Mankind (play)

  By Ari Linden

  

  The Last Days of Mankind (''Die letzten Tage der Menschheit'') is the major work by Vienna’s most prolific satirist, Karl Kraus. Published in full in 1922, the drama ridicules the interconnected … READ MORE

  Entry

• The Man without Qualities (novel)

  By Walter Fanta

  

  ''Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften'' (''The Man without Qualities'') is a novel by Robert Musil, begun in 1918. The first book was published in 1931, and the first part of the second book was published in … READ MORE

  Entry

• Tisza, István, Gróf

  By Zoltán Maruzsa

  

  István Tisza was a Hungarian politician and minister. He served as Prime Minister from 1903 to 1905 and from 1913 to 1917. Austria-Hungary entered the First World War during Tisza's second period as … READ MORE

  Entry

• Trentino

  By Nicola Fontana and Mirko Saltori

  

  Trentino is an Italian-speaking region which was the southernmost part of the Tyrol. With Italy’s entry into the war, it found itself in the front area. After the war it was annexed to the Kingdom … READ MORE

  Entry

• Trialism

  By Mateusz Drozdowski

  Before and at the beginning of World War I, various proposals concerning the creation of a third part of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy were brought up for discussion. Each of the aspiring groups … READ MORE

  Entry

• Trianon, Treaty of

  By Miklós Zeidler

  

  The Treaty of Trianon is one of the Paris peace treaties that ended the First World War. It was concluded between Hungary and the Allied and Associated Powers on 4 June 1920 in the Grand Trianon … READ MORE

  Entry

• Viribus Unitis, SMS

  By Walter Blasi

  The Austro-Hungarian battleship ''Viribus Unitis'' was commissioned in reaction to the newly built Italian dreadnought, ''Dante Alighieri''. The ''Viribus Unitis'' was the first Austro-Hungarian ship … READ MORE

  Entry

• Vorarlberg Referendum

  By Wolfgang Weber

  

  The latter Austrian ''Land'' Vorarlberg saw the rise of a grass root movement for a political union with Switzerland between autumn 1918 and spring 1919. These ideas never materialized, however, as … READ MORE

  Entry

• War Archives (Austria-Hungary)

  By Christoph Tepperberg

  

  The War Archives (''Kriegsarchiv''), centre of the official historiography of the Imperial and Royal Army in the pre-war period, changed, during the First World War, into a repository for recent war … READ MORE

  Entry

• War Bonds

  By Steffen Bruendel

  

  The governments of all belligerent countries issued special loans to finance their expenditure after the war began. To mobilize the financial resources of their peoples required concerted war bonds … READ MORE

  Entry

• War Press Office (Austria-Hungary)

  By Christoph Tepperberg

  

  The War Press Office, or ''Kriegspressequartier'' (KPQ) was the central propaganda institution of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces during World War I. Initially, the KPQ co-ordinated only print … READ MORE

  Entry

• War Requirement Acts

  By Ágnes Pogány

  The War Requirements Acts were passed in Austria-Hungary in 1912. They placed military requisitions under parliamentary control and helped the army to obtain the most needed products and services … READ MORE

  Entry

• War Surveillance Office (Austria-Hungary)

  By Tamara Scheer

  

  During the First World War, Austria-Hungary implemented a state of emergency with several emergency laws overseen by the ''kaiserlich und königlich ''(''k.u.k.'') ''Kriegsüberwachungsamt'' (war … READ MORE

  Entry

• Wiener Philharmoniker (Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra)

  By Akeo Okada

  

  The Vienna Philharmonic, a music institution typical of the high bourgeoisie before the First World War, played patriotic music in many charity concerts during the conflict and was sent to neutral … READ MORE

  Entry

See also

• Alliance System 1914

  By Günther Kronenbitter

  

  Alliances were an important feature of the international system on the eve of World War I. The formation of rival blocs of Great Powers has previously considered a major cause of the outbreak of war … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Antisemitism

  By Werner Bergmann and Ulrich Wyrwa

  

  The First World War and its direct repercussions in the postwar period (revolution, counterrevolution, the founding of republics, and the Paris peace treaties) mark a profound caesura not only in the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Atrocities

  By Alan Kramer

  

  The term "atrocity" describes an act of violence condemned by contemporaries as a breach of morality or the laws of war. "Atrocities" are culturally constructed; by 1914, an international discourse … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Bereavement and Mourning

  By Manfred Hettling and Tino Schölz

  

  In the modern era, new forms of mourning and meaning-making for fallen soldiers emerged. The human losses of the First World War were largely mourned, honoured and remembered within … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War

  By André Loez

  

  Soldiers’ attitudes towards the Great War are a controversial issue, as they prove difficult to assess and raise complex methodological questions. They evolved during the course of the conflict, … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Caricatures

  By Eberhard Demm

  

  This article presents cartoonists as patriotic propagandists mobilizing their pens and brushes for the national cause during the war. It analyses their techniques for arousing emotions such as … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Censorship

  By Eberhard Demm

  

  Censorship was an indispensable war weapon: its task was to keep the people in an atmosphere of utter ignorance and unshaken confidence in the authorities, and to allow their boundless indoctrination … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Centenary (Internet)

  By Lorna M. Hughes and Ian G. Anderson

  The centenary events surrounding the First World War have produced a significant amount of digital content in various forms, and thus has set a precedent for how large scale post-war memorisation can … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Centenary (Libraries)

  By Matthew Shaw

  

  Libraries (local, specialist, and national) contributed in numerous and important ways to commemorative activities during the centenary of the First World War. These included making use of their … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Centenary (Museums)

  By Andrea Brait

  

  This article discusses how European museums – in particular, national war museums – dealt with the centenary of World War I. These museums still tend to tell the story of World War I from a … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Children and Youth

  By Andrew Donson

  

  Mass conscription recast relationships in families, raised minors’ potential as wage earners, and decreased supervision over them. War ravaged the health of young people in Central Europe while … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Civilian and Military Power

  By Lawrence Sondhaus

  

  By 1914 the leading states had succumbed to varying degrees of militarism, subordinating other interests to those of the armed forces, yet all were governed by regimes in which the ultimate authority … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Civilian Morale

  By Matteo Ermacora

  

  This article deals with civilian morale during the First World War. Between 1915 and 1918, governments “discovered” the importance of civilian morale and developed vast systems of surveillance to … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen

  By Stéphane Tison

  

  The First World War ushered in an unprecedented wave of commemorations. Mass death elicited a construction spree in memorial objects and sites across all countries and territories involved in the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Controversy: The Media's Responsibility for Crises and Conflicts in the Age of Imperialism

  By Peter Geiss

  The article discusses the role of the media in the complex international process leading to the First World War with a focus on the press of the great powers. Recent research has shown that the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Controversy: War-related Changes in Gender Relations: The Issue of Women’s Citizenship

  By Birgitta Bader-Zaar

  

  The idea that World War I was a watershed in gender relations has pervaded both contemporary narratives and historiography. In contrast to earlier studies, research now tends to give a more nuanced … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Crumbling of Empires and Emerging States: Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia as (Multi)national Countries

  By Katrin Boeckh

  

  During the First World War, Czechoslovakia and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (called “Yugoslavia” from 1929) emerged as new national states on the territories of the crumbling … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Demobilization

  By Gearóid Barry

  

  The end of fighting in 1918 raised hopes for swift and equitable military demobilization amongst soldiers and civilians. The timing and nature of demobilization varied greatly, though, due to … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Drugs

  By Łukasz Kamieński

  

  Throughout history, intoxicants were an important part of the war experience. The First World War was by no means an exception in that respect: its main “war drugs” were alcohol (mostly beer, … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Economic Planning before 1914

  By Martin Horn

  This article surveys the financial and economic planning for war before 1914 in the European Great Powers that initially entered the conflict – Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany and Russia. … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Enemy Aliens and Internment

  By Matthew Stibbe

  

  The internment of enemy aliens in the First World War was a global phenomenon. Camps holding civilian as well as military prisoners could be found on every continent, including in nation-states and … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Espionage

  By Emmanuel Debruyne

  

  During the entire war, warring powers used the “secret war” to try to break the balance of the battlefield. Generally created in the previous few decades, intelligence and security services saw … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Food and Nutrition

  By Emmanuelle Cronier

  

  During the First World War, food became a major issue for military and civilian matters. This contribution aims to discuss the food situation in the belligerent countries in connection with global … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Forced Labour

  By Jens Thiel and Christian Westerhoff

  

  This article examines the conditions, forms and consequences of forced labor and recruitment during the First World War, especially in German-occupied northern France, Belgium, Russian-Poland and … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Governments, Parliaments and Parties

  By Torsten Oppelland

  

  One sees a wide range of political regimes from a democratic republic with universal male suffrage (France) to parliamentary, constitutional, or even oligarchical monarchies in the countries that … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Health, Disease, Mortality; Demographic Effects

  By Doina Anca Cretu

  The rapid spread of epidemics ravaged military personnel and civilians in and outside Europe’s warzones during the Great War. Further, the great influenza pandemic of 1918-1919 became a global … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Imperialism

  By Boris Barth

  

  This article focuses on the extent to which imperialism contributed to the outbreak of the First World War. The first part describes the emergence of specific imperialist cultures and attitudes in … READ MORE

  Thematic

• International Labour Organization

  By Anita Ziegerhofer

  

  The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919, establishing both the League of Nations and another international organization: the International Labour Organization (ILO). The ILO was founded … READ MORE

  Thematic

• International Law and the Laws of War

  By Jean H. Quataert

  

  The article examines international efforts to curb states’ war-making prerogatives in the second half of the “long” 19^th century. It captures new humanitarian sentiments circulating … READ MORE

  Thematic

• July Crisis 1914

  By Annika Mombauer

  

  The international crisis that began with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 and culminated in the British declaration of war on Germany on 4 August is referred … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Labor

  By Steven E. Rowe

  

  Across the major belligerent powers, industrial production and the mobilization and organization of industrial labor became central to the conduct of the First World War. States and private … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Labour Movements, Trade Unions and Strikes

  By James Thompson

  

  This article compares the history of labour movements during the war across a range of European countries. It charts the impact of the economic realities of the war upon labour and analyses the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• League of Nations

  By Anita Ziegerhofer

  

  READ MORE

  Thematic

• Literature

  By David Budgen

  

  This article seeks to present an overview of First World War literature across many of the combatant nations from the outbreak of the conflict up to the beginning of the Second World War. Taking a … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Media Discourse after the War

  By André Keil

  

  The discourse about the Great War during the interwar period was shaped by numerous factors. The emergence of new media facilitated the use of new forms of expression and profoundly changed the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Medicine and Medical Service

  By Leo van Bergen

  

  It is impossible to talk about “the” medical care or “the” medical service of World War I. Medical care varied greatly, depending on geography, strategy, and national, social, or economic … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Military Justice

  By Steven R. Welch

  

  This essay offers a comparative survey of the practice of military justice among several of the key belligerent powers. Accused soldiers enjoyed little in the way of legal protection, and punishment … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Moral Norms and Values

  By Gearóid Barry

  

  Change and continuity marked belligerent societies’ norms and values during the First World War. Normative institutions such as marriage and the family proved basically resilient but … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Nationalism

  By John Paul Newman

  

  This article offers an overview of the progress of nationalism and the national idea starting with its origins as a mass political programme during the French Revolution and tracing its passage up to … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Naval Warfare

  By Eric W. Osborne

  

  All of the great belligerent states of World War I were naval powers and engaged in operations around the globe. While the course of the war did not unfold as predicted by naval officials, it did … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Negotiating and Mediating Conduct of War

  By Matthew Stibbe

  

  Many issues surrounding the conduct of war in the years 1914-1918 were impervious to international negotiation or mediation, due either to a complete lack of consensus or to an absence of trust and … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Occupation during the War

  By Gustavo Corni

  

  After an initial wave of interest in 1914 and the immediate post-war period, international historiography long neglected the wartime occupation of territories inhabited by large civilian populations. … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Organization of War Economies

  By Matthias Blum, Jari Eloranta and Pavel Osinsky

  

  The First World War was a global conflict that caught most of the participants ill-prepared for the demands of total war. Economic mobilization beyond the initial needs of the troops involved … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Othering/Atrocity Propaganda

  By Steffen Bruendel

  

  In August 1914, a targeted and systematic manipulation of opinion by the media, intellectuals and authorities started. Atrocities were attributed to the enemies that arose from preformed images or … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Pacifism

  By David S. Patterson

  

  The idea of peace in total war may seem irrelevant, but pacifism, or peace activism, did exist during the First World War. A seemingly robust European peace movement existed before 1914, but it … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Paramilitary Violence

  By Annemarie Sammartino

  

  While World War I featured the largest armies ever assembled, it was also fought by unprecedented numbers of paramilitary fighters. In a situation where the line between combatant and non-combatant … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Peace Initiatives

  By Ross Kennedy

  

  This paper examines major peace initiatives during World War I. It describes efforts by the chief European belligerents to split apart enemy coalitions with separate peace settlements as well … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Photography

  By Hilary Roberts

  

  The First World War represents a watershed in the history of war photography. It was the first conflict to be photographed in detail by all the participants and the first in which photography was … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Post-war Societies

  By Richard Bessel

  

  The First World War caused unprecedented disruption to societies across the globe, from Western and (especially) Central and Eastern Europe to East Africa. While many survivors could celebrate an end … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Post-war Welfare Policies

  By Pierluigi Pironti

  

  The Great War gave new impulses to the further development of public welfare systems which had emerged in previous decades. The desire for the social protection of the population and the restoration … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Press/Journalism

  By Florian Keisinger

  

  Word War I had a significant impact on the evolution of the European media scene. Before the start of the war, newspapers in Europe were increasingly popular, free and independent, and transnational. … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Pre-war Military Planning

  By Matthew S. Seligmann

  

  German and British war planning has attracted a great deal of attention, but also generated a great deal of controversy. This entry charts and evaluates these debates. In the process it outlines the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Prisoners of War

  By Heather Jones

  

  The First World War marked the shift from a 19^th century, relatively ''ad hoc'' management of prisoners of war, to the 20^th century’s sophisticated prisoner of war camp … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Propaganda at Home and Abroad

  By Eberhard Demm

  

  This article summarizes and compares the principal arguments and strategies of propaganda at the home front, the military front, as well as in neutral and enemy countries. These included the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Property Rights and Economic Nationalism

  By Daniela L. Caglioti

  This article explores the policies adopted and implemented against enemy property from the beginning of the Great War to the signing of the peace treaties in Europe. Breaking a long-standing … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Raw Materials

  By Pierre Chancerel

  

  Raw materials were vital during the First World War. Due to the armaments production, the belligerents’ needs increased significantly, while the available resources fell. Each country intended both … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Red Cross

  By Cédric Cotter

  

  National Red Cross societies played a very important role in the First World War. They supported armies’ medical services, brought relief to prisoners of war and sometimes organized their … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Refugees

  By Peter Gatrell

  

  This article addresses the scale of wartime population displacement in continental Europe, the relief efforts made on behalf of refugees, their impact on host communities, and the cultural … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Resettlement

  By Peter Gatrell

  

  The conduct of warfare in 1914-1918 included extensive population resettlement in all theatres of war in Europe, both as a result of pre-emptive decisions by civilians to flee in order to evade the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Revolutions

  By Chad R. Fulwider

  

  This article surveys the various movements toward social, national, and political revolution that emerged during and in the wake of World War I. The Russian revolutions of 1917 serve as the first … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Rural Society

  By Matteo Ermacora

  

  The paper describes the impact of war on peasantry and its mobilisation in the war effort. While observers portrayed the countryside as rich and callous towards urban shortages or waging war, the … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Sexuality, Sexual Relations, Homosexuality

  By Jason Crouthamel

  

  This article provides an international overview of the history of sexuality in the Great War, including (1) the venereal disease epidemic, prostitution, and expanding state surveillance of sexuality; … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Shifts and Tensions in Ethnic/National Groups

  By Borislav Chernev

  

  This article examines the changing dynamics of national tensions in the Habsburg, Romanov, and Ottoman empires during three distinct phases of the Great War. The outbreak and early months of the war … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Social Conflict

  By Claire Morelon

  

  This article deals with the nature of social conflict during the war. The length of the conflict and growing food shortages on the home front strained relations between individuals and between social … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Social Costs of War

  By Kimberly A. Redding

  

  This article explores how the anticipation, reality, and memory of sacrifice informed experiences and legacies of World War I. Drawing on representative examples from multiple nations, I suggest that … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Staging War. Theatre 1914-1918

  By Eva Krivanec

  

  From 1914 to 1918, theatres in all major European cities staged plays – comedies, operettas, revues, classical and modern dramas, music hall shows or sensational plays – day after day. The lively … READ MORE

  Thematic

• State, Civil Society and Relief Organizations for War

  By Branden Little

  

  A vast array of initiatives designed to counteract the destructiveness of the First World War was developed by states and societies across the world. Protecting the bodies and minds of soldiers from … READ MORE

  Thematic

• The Churches

  By Patrick J. Houlihan

  

  Reflecting current historiography, this article focuses primarily on Christian churches centered in the main European theater of the Great War, including more global interactions with the other … READ MORE

  Thematic

• The Everyday as Involved in War

  By Tammy M. Proctor

  

  This essay examines how the "everyday" functions in war, not only for those on the home fronts, but for those in combat roles and for those living between the lines. Five important qualities, among … READ MORE

  Thematic

• The Historiography of the Origins of the First World War

  By William Mulligan

  The debate about the origins of the war remains a vibrant area of historical research. It has been characterised by a number of features. First, from the outset, political concerns shaped the debate, … READ MORE

  Thematic

• The Military at Home

  By Odile Roynette

  

  Regardless of whether it was based on volunteer enlistment or conscription, mass mobilization in all of the countries at war between 1914 and 1918 completely upended the pre-war relationships that … READ MORE

  Thematic

• The Military Collapse of the Central Powers

  By Graydon A. Tunstall

  

  October 1918 witnessed the collapse of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies, both greatly affected by war-weariness and starvation. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy lost any remaining loyalty from its … READ MORE

  Thematic

• The Paris Peace Conference and its Consequences

  By Alan Sharp

  

  This article offers an overview of peacemaking after the First World War from the armistices of 1918 until 1923. It considers the outcomes of the five Parisian treaties (Versailles, Saint-Germain and … READ MORE

  Thematic

• The Way to War

  By Samuel R. Williamson, Jr.

  

  Imperialism shaped almost every facet of international politics from 1898 to 1914. Imperial concerns brought Britain into entente relationships with France and Russia. This Triple Entente often … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Urban Societies and Cities

  By Andrew Lees

  

  Cities — with their comparatively large and dense but also vulnerable populations — went from being theaters of mass mobilization in favor of the political status quo to being sites of domestic … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Venereal Diseases

  By Journey Steward and Nancy M. Wingfield

  

  This essay traces belligerent policies toward venereal disease (VD) on the fighting and home fronts in Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain, Russia, and later, the United States. VD rates … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Visualization of Violence

  By Mark Connelly

  

  This piece explores the visualisation of violence for home front audiences and shows that violence was often hinted at very strongly, but the actual act was avoided. All home front audiences were … READ MORE

  Thematic

• War Aims and War Aims Discussions

  By Georges-Henri Soutou

  

  Despite what some believe, there is still a lot to say and learn about the First World War, particularly with regard to war aims. A lot of focus is currently placed on the cultural, social and … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Warfare 1914-1918

  By William Philpott

  

  Static “trench warfare” belied a dynamic transformation in warfare between 1914 and 1918. Every army grappled with the same issues: how to end a strategic stalemate occasioned by their ability to … READ MORE

  Thematic

• War Finance

  By Nicholas Mulder

  

  The Great War required war-making states to mobilize and sustain the financial resources for a global war on an unprecedented scale. What made war finance during the conflict so special is that this … READ MORE

  Thematic

• War Letters: Communication between Front and Home Front

  By Martha Hanna

  

  In nations where literacy was well-established by 1914, letter-writing was critical to the emotional well-being of soldiers and their families. Men in uniform often circumvented the censors and sent … READ MORE

  Thematic

• War Losses

  By Antoine Prost

  

  Military sources provide the primary statistics of war losses and casualties during World War I. In order to review and eventually revise their figures, one must understand how military statistics … READ MORE

  Thematic

• War Psychiatry and Shell Shock

  By Fiona Reid

  

  During the First World War soldiers from all combatant nations suffered from a wide range of debilitating nervous complaints as a result of the stresses and strains of modern warfare. War … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Willingly to War. Public Response to the Outbreak of War

  By Jean-Jacques Becker

  

  It may surprise us to learn that some sectors of the European public were in favour of the war in 1914. The impact of modern weapons was not well understood and many people in the government, … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Women’s Mobilization for War

  By Susan R. Grayzel

  

  This article explores women’s economic, social, and political responses to the First World War. It addresses their mobilization including their engagement with the war effort as well as their … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Women War Reporters

  By Stephanie Seul

  

  Female war reporters from belligerent and neutral countries were present in the major war theatres in Europe and the Middle East throughout 1914 to 1918. While admission of journalists to the war … READ MORE

  Thematic

• Xenophobia

  By Thomas Brodie

  

  This article provides an overview of xenophobia during the First World War - namely, the ways in which the conflict was justified and sustained by the growth of hatred for external enemies, and … READ MORE

  Thematic