Regions Western Europe

Hierarchical View

Survey Articles (Regional)

Regional Thematic Articles

Encyclopedic Entries

See also

Survey Articles (Regional)

  • Belgium

    By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

    Belgium, a neutral state, was forced into the First World War by a German ultimatum, a fact with considerable international resonance. The war had a deep impact on what was, in 1914, the most … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Denmark

    By Nils Arne Sørensen

    With its economy highly reliant on Great Britain, Germany and other European nations, Denmark had to navigate between the two belligerent blocks during the war. This combined with shortages and … READ MORE

    Regional

  • France

    By Nicolas Beaupré

    To study France during the “Great War” – as it was called as early as 1914 – involves focusing on a major Western state that was confronted with a growing demand for resources to fuel the war … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Great Britain

    By Stephen Badsey

    Great Britain was with its Empire the most powerful of the major belligerents, the most politically and socially stable, and the best able to endure the strains of the war. Its great naval, financial … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Ireland

    By Richard S. Grayson

    Ireland’s war experience cannot be separated from Irish politics. Indeed, the story is not one of 1914-18 but of 1912-23, as the vast majority of people sought to change Ireland’s place in the … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Luxembourg

    By Benoît Majerus and Charel Roemer

    Despite its neutrality, Luxembourg was occupied in August 1914, mainly for its strategic value. For four years, the national elite engaged in a difficult policy of cooperation with the German … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Norway

    By Karl Erik Haug

    Norway managed to stay neutral during the First World War, but the war still crept into Norwegian life and impacted it in numerous ways. With a large merchant fleet – the fourth largest in the … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Portugal

    By Maria Fernanda Rollo, Ana Paula Pires and Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses

    Portugal’s participation in the First World War was depicted by its supporters as a vital component of the consolidation of the country’s young republican regime (established in 1910) and its … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Spain

    By Javier Ponce

    This article examines Spain’s neutrality during the Great War, highlighting factors such as the lack of military resources; the division of public opinion and internal conflicts; and actors such as … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Sweden

    By Sofi Qvarnström

    For Sweden, the impact of the war was twofold. On the one hand, it was a test to the neutrality policy. Concessions and violations of neutrality got consequences for both foreign affairs and the … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Switzerland

    By Jakob Tanner

    As a neutral country, Switzerland was not involved in the devastating military conflicts of 1914-18. Nevertheless, concerning the economy, communications, diplomacy, secret services and war … READ MORE

    Regional

  • The Netherlands

    By Samuël Kruizinga, Paul Moeyes and Wim Klinkert

    The Netherlands remained neutral during the First World War, but was nevertheless significantly affected by it. Its army remained fully mobilized to counter any possible threat, and its economy felt … READ MORE

    Regional

Regional Thematic Articles

Encyclopedic Entries

  • Activisme

    By Antoon Vrints

    A minority of the adherents of the Flemish movement were willing to collaborate with the German occupier in the context of ''Flamenpolitik''. This minority labelled themselves “activists”, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Ador, Gustave

    By Irène Herrmann

    Ador was the third president of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and a Swiss minister during WWI. He displayed the charisma, the diplomatic skills and the decisiveness necessary to … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Aircraft, Fighter and Pursuit

    By Mark Wells

    The general trend in aircraft development during World War I was towards better-engined, stronger, higher flying, more heavily armed, and more capable airplanes. Strictly speaking, pure … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Aircraft, Reconnaissance and Bomber

    By Craig Morris

    Much like fighter aircraft, World War I reconnaissance and bomber technology advanced rapidly throughout the war. As aircraft designs that combined lift, range, and stability were key to both … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Alain-Fournier, Henri

    By Laurence Campa

    Reported missing in action in September 1914, Alain-Fournier is not officially considered a war writer because of his early death. The author of ''Le Grand Meaulnes ''has become a symbol for the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Albert I, King of the Belgians

    By Jan Velaers

    Albert I, the third king of the Belgians, played a leading role as supreme commander of the Belgian army during the First World War. For four years he defended the last piece of unoccupied Belgium … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Albertini, Luigi

    By Rosaria Leonardi

    Luigi Albertini was a journalist and editor-in-chief of one of the most important Italian newspapers, ''Corriere della Sera''. From the pages of his newspaper, he advocated for Italian intervention … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Alfonso XIII, King of Spain

    By Carolina García Sanz

    Alfonso XIII was a controversial Spanish king during the first decades of the 20th century. During the First World War he established a humanitarian office for prisoners and civilian … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Allenby, Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, Viscount

    By James E. Kitchen

    Field Marshal Edmund Allenby was a British army officer who commanded a variety of formations on the Western Front, including the Third Army (October 1915 - June 1917) and the Egyptian Expeditionary … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Alsace-Lorraine

    By Elizabeth Vlossak

    Alsace-Lorraine was a border region located between the Rhine River and the Vosges Mountains. Its role in French wartime propaganda, its geographic location, and its tumultuous recent history all … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Amiens, Battle of

    By Stephen Badsey

    The Battle of Amiens, 8-12 August 1918, was a decisive British-led victory that marked the start of the Allied counteroffensive of the Hundred Days campaign, leading to the defeat of the German army … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Amphibious Raids on Ostend and Zeebrugge

    By Mark D. Karau

    On the night of 22-23 April 1918, the Royal Navy attacked the German occupied towns of Ostend and Zeebrugge in an effort to block the canals that linked the two cities to the German naval base at … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Angell, Ralph Norman

    By Martin Ceadel

    Norman Angell (birth name Ralph Norman Lane), built a long career as an internationalist pundit on his best-selling book of 1910, ''The Great Illusion'', which argued that financial interdependence … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Apollinaire, Guillaume

    By Annette Becker

    Although he actually died of Spanish influenza, the trepanned avant-garde poet was the embodiment of France’s “head wound”. Apollinaire’s letters to the woman he loved during the war, Lou, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Arditi

    By Martina Salvante

    ''Arditi'' were elite assault troops in the Italian army. They also emerged on Italy’s post-war political scene thanks to newly formed associations. Even though many of them had ties to fascism, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Army of the Orient

    By Yohann Chanoir

    The French Army of the Orient is a military unit, which was created after the disaster of the Dardanelles Campaign (1915). Established at Thessaloniki with allied forces to fight against pro-German … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Artillery

    By Dieter Storz

    Artillery consisted of the military’s heavy firearms. As a branch of the armed forces, its purpose was to fire explosive-filled projectiles across relatively large distances. In contrast to the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Asquith, Herbert Henry

    By Garry Tregidga

    Asquith was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at the outbreak of war. He formed a coalition in May 1915 but accusations of ineffectiveness led to his replacement by David Lloyd George in December … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Atlantic U-boat Campaign

    By John Abbatiello

    Between February 1915 and the Armistice, Germany conducted three submarine campaigns against British, Entente and neutral merchant shipping. The final unrestricted campaign that started in early 1917 … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Attrition Warfare

    By Nicholas Murray

    Attrition warfare is the term used to describe the sustained process of wearing down an opponent so as to force their physical collapse through continuous losses in personnel, equipment and supplies … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Balfour, Arthur James Balfour, Earl of

    By Samir Seikaly

    Arthur James Balfour was a British Conservative politician and statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and was later Foreign Secretary. In the latter post, he issued the Balfour … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Balfour Declaration

    By Maryanne A. Rhett

    The Balfour Declaration, the document that set the stage for establishing the state of Israel, was the product of months of wordsmithing and political jockeying. The evolution of its final wording … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Baracca, Francesco

    By Irene Guerrini and Marco Pluviano

    Francesco Baracca was the most famous Italian aviator, and shot down thirty-four enemy airplanes. He began his career in 1910 as a cavalry officer and became an air-fighter in 1912. He fought in the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Barbed Wire

    By Alan Krell

    Invented in France in 1860, barbed wire was further developed in the United States, where it was used to restrict cattle and secure territory. Acquiring far more menacing qualities in the First World … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Barbusse, Henri

    By Laurence Campa

    Fulfilling the archetype of the war writer, Henri Barbusse is the embodiment of pacifist activism. His book ''Le Feu ''(1916) paved the way for a new genre, that of literary testimony. Acclaimed as … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Barthas, Louis

    By Rémy Cazals

    A barrelmaker in a French village and corporal at war in an infantry regiment, Louis Barthas was considered the spokesman of his squad. He wrote a reliable testimony about his experience fighting in … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Battisti, Cesare

    By Mirko Saltori

    Cesare Battisti was the leader of the socialist party of the Italian Tirol (Trentino) and, from 1911, a member of the Austrian parliament. At the outbreak of war he went to Italy to engage in … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Beatty, David Beatty, Earl

    By Chuck Steele

    David Beatty was a British admiral. He is best known for leading Britain’s Battlecruiser Fleet in its disastrous rendezvous with Germany’s High Seas Fleet at the Battle of Jutland. An audacious … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Beerenbrouck, Charles Ruijs de

    By Paul Moeyes

    Ruijs de Beerenbrouck was a Dutch Prime Minster who successfully dealt with the threat of revolution in November … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Belgian Soldiers

    By Tom Simoens

    This article briefly describes the 320,000 Belgian soldiers of the Great War. Who were they and what was special about the way they experienced the war compared to other … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bell, Gertrude

    By Laith Shakir

    Gertrude Bell’s earlier travels and intellectual interests, alongside her wartime intelligence-gathering activities, prefigured the role she would play in administering the new Iraqi state. In … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bergson, Henri

    By Stanley E. Gontarski

    Widely known as a philosopher in France from the publication of his first book in 1889, Bergson became an international celebrity with the publication of ''Creative Evolution'' in 1907. With the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bernhardt, Sarah

    By Emmanuelle Loubat

    Sarah Bernhardt was a French actress. During the war, she showed great commitment to the patriotic cause through her participation in performances at the front, appearance in propaganda productions … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Besant, Annie

    By Maria Framke

    Annie Besant (1847-1933) was a British supporter of Indian nationalism. During World War I she propagated self-government for India and set up the All-India Home Rule League. Her political work … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bettignies, Louise Marie Jeanne Henriette de

    By Chantal Antier

    Louise de Bettignies created an intelligence network for the British in occupied France. She was arrested, sentenced to death in March 1916 and deported to the prison of Siegburg. Sick, she died in … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bishops and Chaplains (Italy)

    By Sante Lesti

    Italian bishops and chaplains played a central role in making sense of the war by presenting sacrifice for one’s country as an act of charity and brotherly love. In addition to the 2,624 Catholic … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bissing, Moritz Ferdinand Freiherr von

    By Christoph Roolf and Thomas L. Gertzen

    Moritz von Bissing was born on 30 January 1844, in Bellmannsdorf, Silesia, then part of the German Empire. He served as governor general of the Prussian Army from December 1914 until his death on 18 … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Black and Tans and Auxiliaries

    By D. M. Leeson

    The "Black and Tans" were British ex-soldiers recruited to reinforce the United Kingdom’s police force in Ireland. The "Auxiliaries" were a temporary force of paramilitary police, composed of … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bonar Law, Andrew

    By Stuart Ball

    Bonar Law was leader of the Conservative Party in Britain during the war. He entered Asquith’s coalition government in May 1915, and in December 1916 played a crucial role in Lloyd George becoming … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Border Occupation (Switzerland)

    By Michael M. Olsansky

    Shortly after the outbreak of the First World War, the Swiss army moved into a staggered defensive position in the northwest of the country, facing the Franco-German front. The southern border was … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Border Occupation (Switzerland)

    By Michael M. Olsansky

    Shortly after the outbreak of the First World War, the Swiss army moved into a staggered defensive position in the northwest of the country, facing the Franco-German front. The southern border was … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Borders (The Netherlands)

    By Maartje Abbenhuis

    The borders of the Netherlands were an important site of war experience for the Dutch, as well as a contested site of war interaction for the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Borms, August

    By Christine Van Everbroeck

    As a Flemish nationalist, August Borms actively collaborated with the Germans during the First World War. As a result of his ten-year imprisonment and his death sentence he became a true symbol of … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Boselli, Paolo

    By Vanda Wilcox

    After a long parliamentary career, Paolo Boselli became Italy’s 22nd prime minister in June 1916 after the fall of Antonio Salandra’s government. Charged with forming a unity … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Brändström, Elsa

    By Lena Radauer

    Elsa Brändström was the only neutral representative to work amongst prisoners of war (POWs) in Russia, Siberia, and Turkestan for five and a half years between winter between winter 1914 and summer … READ MORE

    Entry

  • British Expeditionary Force

    By Peter Simkins

    Between 1914 and 1918 the British Expeditionary Force grew from a small professional striking force into a mass army, which was not only bigger than any in Britain’s history, but was also capable … READ MORE

    Entry

  • British Mandate for Palestine

    By Avital Ginat

    The British Mandate for Palestine (1918-1948) was the outcome of several factors: the British occupation of territories previously ruled by the Ottoman Empire, the peace treaties that brought the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Brittain, Vera

    By Carol Acton

    Vera Brittain’s memoir ''Testament of Youth'', and her wartime diary published in 1981 helped to validate women’s experiences of the First World War, and especially the legacy of sorrow that they … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Broqueville, Charles Marie Pierre Albert, Baron de

    By Laurence van Ypersele

    Charles de Broqueville, chief of the Belgian government during the First World War, acted as liaison between the king and the Belgian government. He supported the king in his attempts to obtain peace … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Brussels

    By Chantal Kesteloot

    The Belgian capital was spared the anguish of combat, but the city suffered four long years of occupation. In fact, it became the most important occupied city during the First World War. For the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cadorna, Luigi

    By Anna Grillini

    Luigi Cadorna was a career military man, the son of a major general in the army of Piedmont. He quickly climbed the military hierarchy to become chief of staff of the Italian army from July 1914 … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Camouflage

    By Cécile Coutin

    A technique of concealment and protection, a means to deceive but not kill, camouflage was significantly developed during the First World War. The technique enabled many artists to put their talents … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Capello, Luigi

    By Andrea Argenio

    Luigi Capello was an Italian general who took part in the war on the Gorizia front. As commander-in-chief of the Second Army, many held him to be chiefly to blame for the defeat of Caporetto. Having … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Caporetto, Battle of

    By Anna Grillini

    The Battle of Caporetto, also known as the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo, remains the worst defeat suffered by the Italian army to date. It began at two o’clock in the morning on 24 October 1917 on … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Carnegie, Lancelot

    By Bruno J. Navarro

    Minister plenipotentiary for England in Lisbon, there was consensus about Lancelot Carnegie as a diplomat in Portuguese public opinion. He was recognized as one of the people responsible for the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Carrier Pigeons (Portugal)

    By João Moreira Tavares

    Since ancient times, carrier pigeons have been used successfully in various armed conflicts. After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/71, several European armies created a pigeon service. During World … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Casement, Roger, Sir

    By Séamas Ó'Síocháin

    Following a career as British consul and humanitarian investigator, Roger Casement became involved in the Irish nationalist movement and the Irish Volunteers. On the outbreak of war, he sought help … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cavalry

    By Douglas Kennedy

    By the beginning of the 20th century, field armies had integrated the combat arm of cavalry with the infantry and artillery branches for over a century. However, its involvement in battle … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cavell, Edith Louisa

    By Katie Pickles

    Edith Cavell was an English nursing matron executed by the Germans in Brussels on 12 October 1915 for assisting enemy troops. After her death, she became one of the most famous women of World War … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cendrars, Blaise

    By Laurence Campa

    The life and works of the poet Blaise Cendrars testify to a disturbing paradox: while encapsulating the trauma that was the result from his war experience, they also illustrate the creative virtues … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cenotaph

    By Glyn Prysor

    The Cenotaph is a major British war memorial. Standing in Whitehall, London, it was designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and first unveiled on 19 July 1919. It provided an immediate focus for public grief … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Champagne Offensives

    By Sebastian Lukasik

    In 1915, France’s Champagne region was the setting for two large-scale French offensives directed against German positions between Reims and the Argonne Forest. Despite enormous casualties and a … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Charleroi, Battle of

    By Erwan Le Gall

    The Battle of Charleroi (21-23 August 1914), in which General Charles Lanrezac’s Fifth Army was nearly surrounded by German First, Second and Third Armies, was one of the deadliest combats that … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Charost, Alexis-Armand

    By James E. Connolly

    Alexis-Armand Charost was bishop of Lille and a key notable during the occupation, playing an important role in protesting against German demands and encouraging charitable works. His complex sermons … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Children's Literature

    By Berenice Zunino

    Extracurricular mobilization of children through literature took place between 1914 and 1918 on the home front of most belligerent countries. Propaganda for children depended on the war’s effects … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Christmas Truce

    By Alexandre Lafon

    In December 1914, there were several truces between enemy soldiers along one part of the Western front. Widely publicized, they underscore how difficult it was for soldiers to adapt to the conditions … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer

    By Richard Toye

    Churchill was Navy Minister during the early stages of the war but was widely criticized over his handling of the Dardanelles campaign. He was demoted and soon afterwards resigned from the government … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Church of England

    By Stuart Bell

    In a conflict characterized as a Holy War between “right” and “might”, the support of the Church of England for Britain’s cause was unwavering. Those who had died in the cause of good (and … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Citizenship (Great Britain)

    By Nicoletta F. Gullace

    World War I had a profound impact on concepts of citizenship. Not only did hosts of people find themselves under new sovereignty at the end of the war, but many individuals had to contend with the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Clemenceau, Georges

    By Vincent Laniol

    During the war, Georges Clemenceau fought for a more efficient war effort and for parliamentary control of military affairs and, as a journalist, rejected unlimited censorship. As French premier, he … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Close Combat Weapons

    By Markus Pöhlmann

    The basic tactical question for all military powers prior to 1914 was how to approach and attack an enemy who was directing massive fire against the attacker and who was making use of natural or … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Coffee

    By Dorothee Wierling

    Before World War I, coffee had become a popular drink in countries in the northern hemisphere, but when the war broke out, it was not regarded as an essential commodity. This article describes the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Collaboration (Belgium and France)

    By James E. Connolly

    Collaboration is often associated with the military occupations of the Second World War, but there was a precursor to this multi-faceted phenomenon in occupied France and Belgium during the First … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Collins, Michael

    By Frank Callanan

    Michael Collins was a revolutionary leader who rose to become chairman of the Irish provisional government in 1922 and Commander-in-chief of its army in the brief interval that supervened before his … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Comité National de Secours et d'Alimentation

    By Michaël Amara

    The ''Comité national de Secours et d’Alimentation'' (National Committee for Relief and Food) was created in Brussels a few days after the start of the war to coordinate the action of notables, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Commission for Relief in Belgium (CRB)

    By Branden Little

    From 1914 to 1919, the Commission for Relief in Belgium directed an innovative and successful international food relief program for more than 9 million Belgian and French civilians who lived in … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Communication Technology

    By Elizabeth Bruton

    A selection of communication technologies, ancient and modern, was available at the outbreak of World War One. During the war, military communications evolved to meet new battlefield and military … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Comradeship (France)

    By Alexandre Lafon

    “United as we were on the battle front,” the rallying cry popularized by one of the two major French veterans’ associations created just after the First World War sums up the process of … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Coronel, Battle of

    By Andreas Leipold

    On 1 November 1914, the German East Asiatic Cruiser Squadron defeated the 4th British Cruiser Squadron near the harbour of Coronel, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cort van der Linden, Pieter Wilhelm Adriaan

    By Paul Moeyes

    P.W.A. Cort van der Linden was the Dutch prime minister from 1913 to 1918. His cabinet managed to preserve Dutch neutrality throughout the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Costa, Afonso

    By Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses

    Afonso Costa’s name is indelibly attached to Portuguese interventionism. He led the government when Portugal entered the First World War in March 1916; participated in the first Sacred Union … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Croce, Benedetto

    By Adviye Damla Ünlü

    Benedetto Croce is an important figure for both Italian intellectual life (through his philosophical and historical writings) and the political history of Italy (through his work as a politician). … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Croix de Feu

    By Victor Demiaux

    An extreme-right movement, the Croix de Feu was a prominent political phenomenon in interwar France. Its core identity was its commitment to maintaining in the realm of politics what it claimed to be … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cru, Jean Norton

    By Rémy Cazals

    Jean Norton Cru did not consider himself a historian. Yet his life’s work, ''Témoins ''(Witnesses), written for historians, is an exceptional book of historiography of 1914 to 1918 and a … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Dada

    By Josepha Laroche

    Dada, a transnational movement of artists, was founded in Zurich in 1916. It disappeared in 1924, after a sham trial against Maurice Barrès in 1921. Far from pacifism, Dada declared war against war. … READ MORE

    Entry

  • D'Annunzio, Gabriele

    By Vanda Wilcox

    One of Italy’s leading literary figures, Gabriele D’Annunzio agitated for Italian intervention in the war in 1915. After serving as a volunteer fighter pilot, he led a group of fellow … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Defence of the Realm Act (DORA)

    By Gregory Hynes

    The Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) afforded the British government extraordinary emergency powers during the First World War. DORA’s remit was expansive, and grew in severity throughout the war, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Delesalle, Charles

    By James E. Connolly

    A local notable and mayor of Lille during the occupation, Charles Delesalle was forced to work with the Germans but also sought to protect the population as best as possible. In particular, he played … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Delvert, Charles

    By Michaël Bourlet

    Charles Delvert was one of the witnesses of the Great War. A graduate of the École Normale and a reserve officer in the 101st Infantry Regiment, he won fame in the Fort de Vaux fights … READ MORE

    Entry

  • De Valera, Éamon

    By Michael Laffan

    De Valera was a prominent figure in the Easter 1916 rebellion against British rule. He subsequently became head of the Irish … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Diaz, Armando, Duke of Victory

    By Alessandro Salvador

    Armando Diaz was an Italian officer and a general during World War I. In 1917, after the defeat of Caporetto, he replaced Luigi Cadorna as chief of general staff of the Italian army. He reformed the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Discussion: Humanitarianism

    By Peter Gatrell, Rebecca Gill, Branden Little and Elisabeth Piller

    This is the first in what it is hoped will become a series of discussion forums hosted by ''1914-1918-online''. In this discussion forum, General Editor Peter Gatrell invited contributions that … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Dorgelès, Roland

    By Laurence Campa

    Roland Dorgelès is the author of the pacifist novel ''Wooden Crosses'' (1919), a great classic of French war literature. Although based on his personal experience, he was convinced that fiction … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Dreadnought, HMS

    By John Abbatiello

    Adopted in 1906, HMS ''Dreadnought'' represented an innovative battleship design that changed the nature of the Anglo-German naval race preceding the Great War. A hybrid Dreadnought battlecruiser … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Dunsterforce

    By Timothy C. Winegard

    Dunsterforce, officially called the British Military Mission to the Caucasus, was a secret force of 450 to 1,000 imperial soldiers commanded by Major-General Lionel C. Dunsterville. Its mission was … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Elisabeth of Bavaria, Queen of the Belgians

    By Laurence van Ypersele

    Queen Elisabeth was the third queen of the Belgians. Her attitude during the First World War propelled her to the mythic rank of "Queen … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Emigration (Portugal)

    By Yvette Santos

    This article analyzes the characteristics of Portuguese emigration to France and England during the First World War, which was provoked by the reduction of Portuguese emigration to traditional … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Empire

    By Erez Manela

    World War I was not simply a conflict among European states but a global war of empires. The fighting took place not only in Europe, but also in Africa, Asia, and across the Middle East, and it … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Eupen-Malmedy

    By Christoph Brüll

    Eupen-Malmedy is the name given to the two districts that Germany ceded to Belgium in 1920 as a consequence of the Treaty of Versailles. This cession and the semblance of a “referendum”, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Expanding Bullets

    By Paul Cornish

    During the First World War both sides accused each other of employing illegal small arms ammunition – either expanding or explosive bullets. The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 outlawed … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Eyschen, Paul

    By Denis Scuto

    Paul Eyschen, prime minister of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg from 1888 to 1915, insisted on the neutral status of Luxembourg, but practiced a policy of accommodation towards German occupying forces … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Falklands, Battle of the

    By Paul G. Halpern

    During the Battle of the Falklands, the British naval force commanded by Admiral Sturdee defeated the German force under Admiral von Spee off the Falkland Islands on 8 December … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Fayolle, Émile

    By William Philpott

    Marie-Émile Fayolle commanded French forces on the Western Front throughout the war. In 1916 he led French forces in the Battle of the Somme and in 1918 he commanded an army group. A military … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Fear

    By Jan Plamper

    Of the two world wars, the First World War was special in that fear figured prominently in a number of domains, including military tactics, psychiatry, and first-person sources. Fear was to be … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Feminist Pacifism

    By Annika Wilmers

    A minority section of the women’s movements opposed World War I and organized the International Congress of Women at The Hague in April 1915. Its participants demanded women’s rights and more … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Ferry, Abel

    By André Loez

    Abel Ferry was a French politician and minister as well as an infantry combatant, who used his first-hand knowledge of the war to try and shape the official war effort. He died as a result of his … READ MORE

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  • Feuillade, Louis

    By Manon Billaut

    Louis Feuillade was a popular filmmaker in France in the years leading up to and during the First World War. He is known for his serial productions, which, with their cliffhangers, were effective at … READ MORE

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  • Fisher, John Arbuthnot, Baron Fisher

    By Matthew S. Seligmann

    John Fisher led the Royal Navy in the run-up to and in the early years of the First World War. A controversial figure in his lifetime and afterwards, his intentions and legacy are hotly disputed by … READ MORE

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  • Flamenpolitik

    By Antoon Vrints

    The German ''Flamenpolitik'' during the First World War aimed to instrumentalise the Flemish movement in order to ensure lasting German control over Belgium. It did not divide the Belgian or even … READ MORE

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  • Flamethrower

    By Paul Cornish

    The use of portable flamethrowers in combat was a First World War innovation. The German army took the lead in developing this form of warfare and remained the foremost practitioner of it throughout … READ MORE

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  • Flemish Movement

    By Christine Van Everbroeck

    The First World War engendered a rift within the Flemish movement, with some wishing to pursue the advocacy for Flemish rights and others preferring to await the end of the war to obtain new laws. … READ MORE

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  • Foch, Ferdinand

    By Elizabeth Greenhalgh

    Ferdinand Foch was a French general who commanded a corps and an army (1914), and then France’s Northern Army Group. He served on the army’s general staff in 1917 and was appointed Allied supreme … READ MORE

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  • Forain, Jean-Louis

    By Brett M. Van Hoesen

    Jean-Louis Forain was a French artist, who specialized in painting, print making, and illustration. Trained at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, he showed with the Impressionists. He worked as a … READ MORE

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  • Formation of the Royal Air Force

    By Mark Wells

    Created in April 1918 to overcome the complex challenges occasioned by wartime pressures, bureaucratic competition, and public outcry, the Royal Air Force became the world’s first independent air … READ MORE

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  • Forts

    By Miguel A. Lopez

    European militaries considered fortifications before the First World War as vital to their strategic planning. Advancements in weapons technology after the mid-19th century caused … READ MORE

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  • Franchet d'Espèrey, Louis Félix Marie François

    By Gwendal Piégais

    Louis Franchet d'Espèrey was a French general who took command of the Fifth Army at the end of August 1914, then commanded the Eastern Army Group and the Northern Army Group at the end of 1916. He … READ MORE

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  • French, John Denton Pinkstone, Earl of Ypres

    By Nicholas Lloyd

    Sir John French was the commander of the British Expeditionary Force between July 1914 and December … READ MORE

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  • Gallieni, Joseph-Simon

    By Julie d'Andurain

    General Joseph-Simon Gallieni was a colonial officer who became the Governor of Paris in 1914 and Minister of War in … READ MORE

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  • Garcez, Arnaldo

    By Carlos Silveira

    Arnaldo Garcez was the only official photographer of the Portuguese army on the Western Front, a fact that hints at the importance of his mission. Arriving in France in 1917, he thoroughly reported … READ MORE

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  • Garde Civique

    By Piet Veldeman

    In 1830, Belgium constituted a ''Garde Civique'' or Civic Guard''', '''a national institution to be deployed both for maintaining law and order and for territorial defence. In 1914, the Garde Civique … READ MORE

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  • Garros, Roland

    By Eric Mahieu

    Roland Garros was a well-known French aviation pioneer before the war and successfully fought in a squadron as a fighter pilot during World War 1. His invention, firing through axis propeller, … READ MORE

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  • Gas Warfare

    By Thomas I. Faith

    Gas warfare is a method of war that employs weapons that are designed to cause casualties primarily through the use of harmful chemical agents. The First World War constitutes the most extensive … READ MORE

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  • Gaulle, Charles de

    By Jason Musteen

    Charles de Gaulle’s service during World War I and his experiences as a prisoner of war shaped the future leader of France, strengthening his belief in offensive firepower and the need for France … READ MORE

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  • Geddes, Eric Campbell, Sir

    By Christopher Phillips

    Eric Geddes was the most prominent example of Britain’s deployment of businessmen in government. He was the driving force behind the reorganization of the British Expeditionary Force’s (BEF) … READ MORE

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  • Generalgouvernement Belgien

    By Christoph Roolf

    After the German Army had occupied wide areas of Belgium, the “Imperial Government General in Belgium” was established on 23 August 1914 with a governor-general at its head. Organized into a … READ MORE

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  • General Headquarters (Great Britain)

    By Nikolas Gardner

    General Headquarters (GHQ) was the organization that commanded all British and Indian forces in a particular theater of the First World War. The most prominent of these organizations was the GHQ of … READ MORE

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  • Genevoix, Maurice

    By Laurence Campa

    The war turned Maurice Genevoix into a writer. He embodied soldier loyalty and was the author of ''Ceux de 14'', a prime example of French literary narrative and a monument compelling us not to … READ MORE

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  • George V, King of Great Britain

    By David Freeman

    King George V served as a figurehead for the nations of the British Empire throughout the war. He and his wife, Queen Mary, provided inspiration and support for both the armed forces and the civilian … READ MORE

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  • German Communities and their Expulsion (Belgium)

    By Christophe Declercq

    At the start of the First World War, tens of thousands of Germans lived in Belgium, with noted communities in Antwerp and Brussels. How the Germans in Belgium experienced the war years, ranging from … READ MORE

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  • Germanophobia (Great Britain)

    By Panikos Panayi

    During the First World War Britain became gripped with a Germanophobic hatred in which both government and the press played a central role. This hatred impacted the German community that lived within … READ MORE

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  • German Spring Offensives 1918

    By Alexander Watson

    The Spring Offensives of 1918 were Germany’s last attempt to defeat the British and French armies on the Western Front, and thereby win total victory. Their failure by the mid-summer left the … READ MORE

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  • Giardino, Gaetano Ettore

    By Andrea Argenio

    Gaetano Giardino was an Italian general best remembered for his role as commander of the Fourth Army, the army of the Grappa, and as minister of war during the parliamentary crisis of June 1917. In … READ MORE

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  • Gibbs, Philip

    By Stephen Badsey

    Philip Gibbs was the most celebrated, and arguably the most important, of the British official war reporters attached by their newspapers to British General Headquarters on the Western Front from … READ MORE

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  • Giolitti, Giovanni

    By Spencer Di Scala

    Giovanni Giolitti favored the increased liberalization of Italy, which encouraged its estrangement from the Triple Alliance. He consistently refused to recognize that Italy’s partners’ aggressive … READ MORE

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  • Gorizia, Battle of

    By Francesco Frizzera

    The Battle of Gorizia, known as the Sixth Isonzo’s Battle, was fought by the Italian Third Army against the Austro-Hungarian Fifth Army between 6 and 16 August 1916. It resulted in the Italian … READ MORE

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  • Gouraud, Henri

    By Julie d'Andurain

    Henri Gouraud was one of the most important French generals during the First World War, commanding on the Western Front and in the Dardanelles. Prior to World War I, he served as an officer with the … READ MORE

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  • Graffiti

    By Julian Walker

    Graffiti expressed both subversion and enthusiasm for the war. It was used by officers and troops in all environments, signifying the survival of the individual and offering a place to comment on … READ MORE

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  • Grand Fleet

    By Chuck Steele

    The Grand Fleet was Britain’s most important manifestation of sea power in World War I. As the primary instrument of blockade in the North Sea, it was tasked with denying Germany the succor of … READ MORE

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  • Graves, Robert

    By Fran Brearton

    Robert Graves was a British writer who enlisted in August 1914. He fought at the Battle of Loos in 1915, and was wounded at the Somme in 1916. He published his first volumes of poems during the war, … READ MORE

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  • Grey, Sir Edward

    By Detlev Mares

    Grey was the longest-serving British foreign secretary of the 20th century. His time in office is controversial for his role in the outbreak of the First World … READ MORE

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  • Grimm, Robert

    By Adrian Zimmermann

    Robert Grimm was the most powerful socialist politician in Switzerland throughout the first half of the 20th century. As the organiser of the Zimmerwald and Kiental Conferences, he was one … READ MORE

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  • Guynemer, Georges

    By Eric Mahieu

    Georges Guynemer was a French fighter pilot. During World War I, he was known for his dangerous but effective fighting style. After his death, he became an aviation … READ MORE

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  • Haig, Douglas

    By Gary Sheffield

    Douglas Haig was Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force from late 1915 to 1919. Undoubtedly he was one of the significant generals of the war, but Haig's tenure of command remains very … READ MORE

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  • Halbwachs, Maurice

    By Annette Becker

    Declared unfit for military service, sociologist Maurice Halbwachs worked under Albert Thomas at the Ministry of Munitions. His work on memory (unwittingly) enabled reflection on the influence of the … READ MORE

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  • Haldane, Richard Burdon

    By Bill Mitchinson

    Liberal Secretary of State for War 1905-1912. Haldane’s reforms of the British Regular Army and its auxiliaries were instrumental in ensuring that Britain could dispatch an expeditionary force to … READ MORE

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  • Hand Grenade

    By Nathan Watanabe

    The hand grenade is a small hand-thrown bomb dating back to antiquity. Advances in chemistry and explosives technology saw the resurgence of the grenade shortly before World War I. Its effective use … READ MORE

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  • Hankey, Maurice Pascal Alers Hankey, Baron

    By William Philpott

    Maurice Hankey was responsible for adapting the British government’s administrative machinery to the needs of modern war. He became an influential behind-the-scenes adviser to British prime … READ MORE

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  • Harmsworth, Alfred Charles William, Viscount Northcliffe

    By Adrian Bingham

    Lord Northcliffe was the owner of the influential London newspapers the Daily Mail and The Times, and a powerful critic of the Asquith administration’s prosecution of the war. In the final years of … READ MORE

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  • Harmsworth, Harold Sidney, Viscount Rothermere

    By Adrian Bingham

    Lord Rothermere owned the London newspapers the ''Daily Mirror'' and the ''Sunday Pictorial'', and was the brother and political ally of Lord Northcliffe, the owner of the ''Daily Mail''. He was the … READ MORE

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  • Hervé, Gustave

    By Elisa Marcobelli

    Gustave Hervé’s dates of birth and death (1871-1944) correspond broadly to those of the Third Republic (1870-1940). His path is strongly linked to it and his ideas partly reflect its … READ MORE

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  • High Voltage Fence (The Netherlands and Belgium)

    By Alex Vanneste

    In 1915 the Germans built an electric fence along the Belgian-Dutch border, consisting of three lines of wires which were intended to stop all disturbing border activities that might severely harm … READ MORE

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  • Ideologies of Sport

    By Ansgar Molzberger and Stephan Wassong

    At the beginning of the 20th century, two different systems of exercise and training were internationally known: gymnastics and sport. As a result of the First World War, the boundaries … READ MORE

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  • Infantry

    By Jeffrey LaMonica

    The First World War precipitated a revolution in infantry tactics that changed the course of warfare. Armies adapted to modern industrialized war along a four-year learning curve, moving from … READ MORE

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  • Influenza Pandemic (Switzerland)

    By Patrick Kury

    The Spanish flu, the heaviest influenza pandemic in history, coincided with the end of World War One. In Switzerland, the flu had an immense impact on the relationship between the army command, the … READ MORE

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  • Inter-Allied Games

    By Sabine Chavinier-Réla

    The Inter-Allied Games were held at the Pershing Stadium in Paris, France from 22 June to 6 July 1919. Set up by the YMCA, these military Olympics were part of demobilization. The event reached … READ MORE

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  • Interventionism (Italy)

    By Stéfanie Prezioso

    Italy entered the First World War in May 1915, roughly ten months after it began. During those ten months, the battle of opinions for and against intervention raged on. Public meetings, … READ MORE

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  • Intimate Relations between Occupiers and Occupied (Belgium and France)

    By Emmanuel Debruyne

    During the invasion and occupation of 1914-1918, German soldiers had sexual relations with local women in Belgium and France. There were many cases of rape during the invasion, but the occupation … READ MORE

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  • Invincible, HMS

    By Paul G. Halpern

    HMS ''Invincible ''was a British warship belonging to a type commonly known as battlecruisers. They sacrificed protection in order to combine the large guns of a battleship with the speed of a … READ MORE

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  • Irish Home Rule

    By Conor Mulvagh

    The campaign for Irish Home Rule lasted from 1870 until 1914. When Home Rule became a realistic possibility in 1912, a period of political turmoil ensued. Parliamentary solutions to the impasse were … READ MORE

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  • Island of Peace (Switzerland)

    By Béatrice Ziegler

    During World War I, the idea of Switzerland as a peaceful island was created and propagated by many means, for example postcards. After the end of the war, this metaphor gained the status of a myth, … READ MORE

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  • Isonzo, Battles of

    By Alessandro Salvador

    The battles of Isonzo represented Italy’s main offensive efforts against the Austro-Hungarian Empire during World War I. The eleven battles took place between 1915 and 1917 along the Isonzo River … READ MORE

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  • Italian Irredentism

    By Matthew Stibbe

    This article examines the history of Italian irredentism before 1915; and its place its role in Italy’s entry into the war in May 1915 and in Austro-Hungary’s military governance of the … READ MORE

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  • Italo-Turkish War 1911-1912

    By Rachel Simon

    The Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912) took place mainly in Ottoman Libya following Italy’s invasion, not taking into consideration the fierce Ottoman and indigenous … READ MORE

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  • Jaurès, Jean

    By Rémy Cazals

    A philosopher, historian, and journalist (creator of'' L’Humanité''), Jean Jaurès defended the socialist program for workers and small farmers in the Chamber of Deputies and throughout France. … READ MORE

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  • Jellicoe, John Rushworth Jellicoe, Earl

    By Andrew Lambert

    John Rushworth Jellicoe was a British admiral, technologist and fleet commander. He commanded the Grand Fleet from 1914-1916, and was First Sea Lord from 1916-1917. He commanded the Grand Fleet at … READ MORE

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  • Joffre, Joseph Jacques Césaire

    By Mathieu Panoryia

    Joseph Joffre was commander-in-chief of the French army at the beginning of the First World War, which was supposed to be short. He fought to stop German progression and maintain the war effort in … READ MORE

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  • Jutland, Battle of

    By Michael Epkenhans

    On 31 May/1 June 1916 the British Grand Fleet and the German High Sea Fleet clashed at Jutland. It was the largest naval battle in history until the Battle of Leyte Gulf off the Philippines in 1944, … READ MORE

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  • Keyes, Roger John Brownlow, Baron

    By Joseph Moretz

    Roger John Brownlow Keyes was a British naval officer of the First World War. As Chief of Staff in the Eastern Mediterranean Squadron, he was a central participant in the Dardanelles-Gallipoli … READ MORE

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  • Khaki Election 1918

    By Luke Blaxill

    The "khaki" general election of 1918 was held in Great Britain almost immediately after the Armistice. It was the first held under what was almost universal adult suffrage. The result was a crushing … READ MORE

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  • Kitchener, Horatio Herbert Kitchener, Earl

    By Peter Simkins

    In foreseeing a long war and creating Britain's first mass army, Kitchener made a crucial contribution to the eventual Allied victory, but the widening nature of the conflict, and his own … READ MORE

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  • La Courtine, Mutiny of

    By Jamie H. Cockfield

    This article details the mutiny of two Russian brigades sent to France in World War I. The less rebellious of the two was finally disciplined and used to suppress the unruly brigade in 1917 in what … READ MORE

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  • La Dame Blanche

    By Pierre Decock

    La Dame Blanche was an intelligence network created in Belgium in 1916. It was essentially devoted to the observation of railways. At the end of the war, it was comprised of over 1,000 agents and … READ MORE

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  • Lafayette Escadrille

    By Edward A. Gutiérrez

    The Lafayette Escadrille was a French Air Service fighter squadron formed of American volunteers and commanded by French officers. It served from 20 April 1916 to 18 February 1918. Although their … READ MORE

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  • La Fontaine, Henri

    By Jacques Gillen

    Although he was a Nobel Prize winner, the name of Henri La Fontaine has somewhat fallen into obscurity. At the time of his Nobel Peace Prize award in 1913, however, he was a fundamental figure in the … READ MORE

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  • La Madelon (song)

    By Charles Rearick

    The music hall song “La Madelon” was first performed in Paris café concerts before the outbreak of war, but it did not initially catch on. Not until 1917 did it become a favorite – first among … READ MORE

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  • Landesstreik (Switzerland)

    By Bernard Degen

    From 12 to 14 November 1918, a national general strike took place in Switzerland, in which around 250,000 strikers participated. The strike largely ran an orderly course and was terminated by the … READ MORE

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  • Lanrezac, Charles Louis Marie

    By Michaël Bourlet

    Considered one of the best generals in the French armed forces, Charles Lanzerac commanded the French Fifth Army during the Battle of the Frontiers. However, at the end of August 1914, he was … READ MORE

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  • Lawrence, Thomas Edward

    By Tariq Tell

    T.E. Lawrence’s exploits during the Arab Revolt have acquired mythical status, making it difficult to distinguish between what he actually achieved and what was the product of his overactive … READ MORE

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  • Le Feu (novel)

    By Olaf Müller

    Henri Barbusse published the emblematic French war novel ''Le Feu'' in 1916. Given the context of its first publication, ''Le Feu'' was not critical of French propaganda; rather, it was part of a … READ MORE

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  • Léger, Fernand

    By Annette Becker

    Léger was fascinated by the front, but barely ever depicted what he saw in his work. His correspondence, however, offers a remarkable descent into the abyss of the … READ MORE

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  • Légion étrangère

    By Christian Koller

    The French Foreign Legion of the colonial era was mainly deployed in extra-European areas and consisted of mercenaries on five-year contracts. The situation during World War I, however, was … READ MORE

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  • Le Poilu

    By Chris Kempshall

    ''Le Poilu'' translates literally as “the hairy one” and was a collective identity assumed by French infantry during the First World War. However, the term, based upon the soldiers’ hair, … READ MORE

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  • Liddell Hart, Basil Henry, Sir

    By Alaric Searle

    B.H. Liddell Hart served as a British infantry officer on the Western Front in 1915 and 1916 until he was gassed during the Somme Offensive. He is best known for his military historical and … READ MORE

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  • Lloyd George, David

    By Ian Packer

    Lloyd George was a leading Liberal politician before World War I, who went on to play a central role in the United Kingdom’s war effort as Chancellor of the Exchequer (1908-1915), Minister of … READ MORE

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  • London, Bombing of

    By Ian Castle

    Germany’s aerial bombing campaign against Great Britain in the First World War, with London as its primary target, was the first sustained strategic bombing campaign in history. These raids, using … READ MORE

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  • London, Treaty of (1915)

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    The Treaty of London was a secret agreement signed by Italy, Great Britain, France, and Russia on 26 April 1915, bringing Italy into the First World War on the Entente side. It therefore had a … READ MORE

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  • Loppem Coup

    By Vincent Delcorps

    A few weeks before his entry in Brussels, on 22 November 1918, Albert I, King of the Belgians, held talks with various politicians in Loppem Castle. Some particularly important decisions were made, … READ MORE

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  • Loucheur, Louis

    By Daniel Mollenhauer

    Louis Loucheur was a French industrialist and politician. From December 1916 until the end of the war, he served as undersecretary of state for artillery and munitions and later as armaments … READ MORE

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  • Lyautey, Louis Hubert Gonzalve

    By Julie d'Andurain

    During World War One, Hubert Lyautey was the French Resident-General in Morocco and became Minister of the French War Department in … READ MORE

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  • Lys, Battle of the

    By Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses

     … READ MORE

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  • MacDonald, James Ramsay

    By David Howell

    Ramsay MacDonald opposed British entry into the European conflict in 1914. Although often represented as anti-war, he subsequently supported the Allied cause. He criticised balance of power diplomacy … READ MORE

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  • Machado, Bernardino

    By Sérgio Neto

    Bernardino Machado was the prime minister of Portugal during the July Crisis of 1914. As president of the Portuguese Republic (1915-1917) he promoted the formation of a Sacred Union Cabinet that … READ MORE

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  • Machine Gun

    By Paul Cornish

    Between 1914 and 1918, the machine gun played an ever-increasing role on the battlefield. Today, even though artillery was responsible for the majority of deaths, the machine gun is the weapon most … READ MORE

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  • Malvy, Louis-Jean

    By Jean-Yves Le Naour

    French Interior Minister when the war was declared, Louis Malvy embodied the Union sacrée and the quest for social peace. In 1917, he was accused of treason and involved in a political scandal that … READ MORE

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  • Mangin, Charles

    By Julie d'Andurain

    Charles Mangin was a very important French general during the First World War. With his concept “''La Force Noire” ''(“Black Forces”), which he published in a book with the same title, he … READ MORE

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  • Mare, André

    By Laurence Graffin

    André Mare was an artist close to the avant-garde movement and was called to service on 2 August 1914. He was involved in the first “camouflage” operations in official history, alongside … READ MORE

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  • Marie Adelheid, Grand-Duchess of Luxembourg

    By Josiane Weber

    Marie Adelheid reigned from 1912 to 1919 as the Grand-Duchess of Luxembourg. Because of her friendly attitude towards the German occupying forces during World War I, the Luxembourgers and Allies … READ MORE

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  • Marinegebiet

    By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

    The ''Marinegebiet'' on the Belgian coast was the Imperial German Navy’s base for attritional warfare against Entente shipping in the North Sea. The resulting occupation regime was particularly … READ MORE

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  • Marne, Battles of the

    By Erwan Le Gall

    The battles of the Marne were two battles during the First World War. The first took place in September 1914, and the second in the summer of 1918. Both battles were key moments in the First World … READ MORE

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  • Marraines de Guerre

    By Clémentine Vidal-Naquet

    The institution of wartime pen pals to assist isolated soldiers who were unable to receive mail from their loved ones was made official in 1915. The system, which paired up lonely soldiers with a … READ MORE

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  • Masculinities

    By Sonja Levsen

    The First World War represents the apex of the ideal of the male warrior hero. Between 1914 and 1918, both the soldiers themselves and combatant societies relied upon gendered language to make sense … READ MORE

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  • Mata Hari

    By Marianne Walle

    Mata Hari was a famous Dutch female dancer, who spied in France for the German intelligence during the war. Arrested by the French, she was condemned to death and executed in October … READ MORE

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  • Mata Hari

    By Marianne Walle

    Mata Hari was a famous Dutch female dancer, who spied in France for the German intelligence during the war. Arrested by the French, she was condemned to death and executed in October … READ MORE

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  • Matos, Norton de

    By Sérgio Neto

    Norton de Matos was minister of war during the first two years of Portuguese participation in the conflict (1916-1917). He was the main organizer of the Expeditionary Corps that fought on the Western … READ MORE

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  • Max, Adolphe

    By Laurence van Ypersele

    Adolphe Max, the mayor of Brussels, was known for his peaceful resistance against the Germans and his resulting jail-time. He was considered by the Belgian public as a hero of the Great … READ MORE

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  • Max Aitken, Lord Beaverbrook

    By Geoffrey Hayes

    This article offers a brief survey of the Canadian-born newspaper baron, Max Aitken, later known as Lord Beaverbrook, and his role in World War I. In 1916, Aitken created the Canadian War Records … READ MORE

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  • Medals and Decorations

    By Sofya Anisimova

    The Great War unfolded on multiple fronts and saw millions of men and women called up to serve in the armed forces. To recognise their military service as well as civilian efforts in wartime, … READ MORE

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  • Mediterranean Theater, Naval Operations

    By Paul G. Halpern

    The real naval war in the Mediterranean turned out to be a struggle against German and Austrian submarines and not a classic battle between major … READ MORE

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  • Mémorial de Verdun

    By Gerd Krumeich

    The Mémorial de Verdun is a museum built in the centre of the 1916 battlefield, on the site of the railway station of Fleury-devant-Douaumont, a village which was totally destroyed during the … READ MORE

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  • Mémorial Interallié

    By Karla Vanraepenbusch

    The inter-allied memorial commemorates the First World War and the fallen, as well as the wartime cooperation between the Allies. Its inter-allied character and its scale make this memorial one of a … READ MORE

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  • Mercier, Désiré Joseph

    By Luc Courtois

    After his pastoral letter ''Patriotisme et endurance'', which had a worldwide impact, the Cardinal Archbishop of Mechlin, Désiré Mercier, was seen both in Belgium and abroad as the incarnation of … READ MORE

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  • Mesopotamia, British Mandate for

    By Burcu Kurt

    British mandate Mesopotamia marks the beginning of the formation of modern Iraq. The mandate period terminated when Iraq was accepted as a member of the League of Nations as an independent state on 3 … READ MORE

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  • Militarized Workers (Italy)

    By Martina Salvante

    In 1915 the Italian government created an agency called ''Mobilitazione Industriale'' (Industrial Mobilisation) to manage economic activities and labour relations in wartime. The MI attempted to … READ MORE

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  • Military Board of Allied Supply

    By Ian M. Brown

    The Military Board of Allied Supply, formed in mid-1918, attempted to centralize oversight of allied lines of communication in Europe and promote more efficient use of their limited … READ MORE

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  • Military Justice (Switzerland)

    By Sebastian Steiner

    In neutral Switzerland, the executive powers were strengthened more than in some belligerent countries. In a state of emergency, the military justice system played a crucial role; it not only acted … READ MORE

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  • Military Volunteers (Italy)

    By Sante Lesti

    The history of the Italian military volunteers concerns not only the roughly 10,000 men who chose to fight without (or before) being drafted, but also the approximately 6,000 Italians who served in … READ MORE

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  • Millerand, Alexandre

    By Daniel Mollenhauer

    Between 1890 and 1925, Alexandre Millerand was one of France’s leading politicians. From August 1914 to September 1915, he served as war minister in the first ''Union sacrée'' government. In 1920, … READ MORE

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  • Mine Warfare

    By Nicholas Murray

    Mine warfare or mining are the terms used to describe the digging of tunnels under the enemy’s line in order to place explosives to destroy a key location, to prevent an enemy from digging tunnels, … READ MORE

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  • Mons

    By Guillaume Blondeau

    The city of Mons took on great symbolic importance during the Great War. In both August 1914 and November 1918, the region was the scene of clashes between Commonwealth troops and German soldiers. … READ MORE

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  • Monte Grappa, Battle of

    By Francesco Cutolo

    After the battle of Caporetto, the Austro-German army launched several attacks against Mount Grappa to break through the Italian line. The battle was fought in two phases: between 13 and 26 November, … READ MORE

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  • Morel, Edmund Dene

    By Christy Jo Snider

    E. D. Morel was one of the earliest critics of the secret diplomacy and alliance system that led to the start of the Great War. Imprisoned during the war by the British government for his writings, … READ MORE

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  • Moroccan Crises 1905-1911

    By Jean-Marc Delaunay

    The two Moroccan crises represent the product of “rapacious joint imperialism.” Morocco could not escape the ambitions of its immediate neighbours, Spain and France, who secretly plotted to … READ MORE

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  • Murray, Archibald James, Sir

    By Justin Fantauzzo

    Sir Archibald James Murray was Chief of the Imperial General Staff from September 1915 to December 1915 and Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force from March 1916 to June … READ MORE

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  • Music

    By Akeo Okada

    The First World War fundamentally changed the course of 20th century music. The era of late Romanticism, Symbolism and Expressionism had ended, the music culture of the European high … READ MORE

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  • Mussolini, Benito

    By Brian R. Sullivan

    Italian Socialist Benito Mussolini envisioned war as the prerequisite for revolution. He helped push Italy into World War I. After combat service and medical discharge in 1917, he demanded war until … READ MORE

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  • Nash, Paul

    By Paul Gough

    Paul Nash was a British painter who served as an infantry officer and an official war artist during the First World War. His paintings and prints depicted the dystopian face of modern warfare etched … READ MORE

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  • Naval Race between Germany and Great Britain, 1898-1912

    By Dirk Bönker

    The Anglo-German naval race was the most spectacular strand of the general maritime arms build-up before World War I. Often, albeit misleadingly, described as both the first and the prototypical arms … READ MORE

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  • Naval Warfare (Italy)

    By Fabio De Ninno

    Italy’s war at sea reflected the more general trends of the naval warfare in the Great War: a stalemate that turned into a war of naval attrition. Only after harsh losses to national shipping and … READ MORE

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  • Netherlands Overseas Trust (NOT)

    By Samuël Kruizinga

    During the First World War, the Netherlands Oversea Trust Company acted as a clearing house for imported contraband goods. Although the Dutch government viewed most of the company’s actions as … READ MORE

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  • Neutrality

    By Samuël Kruizinga

    During the 19th century, neutrality evolved into a set of legal and political tools designed to limit the impact of wars on the international system. This form of neutrality did not … READ MORE

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  • Nevinson, C. R. W. (Christopher Richard Wynne)

    By Kevin Hogg

    C. R. W. Nevinson was a British painter who served as an official war artist in World War I. His paintings depicted soldiers suffering and dying on the battlefield. His work was well-received, … READ MORE

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  • Nitti, Francesco Saverio

    By Pierluigi Pironti

    Francesco Nitti was minister of the Treasury in the Orlando Cabinet after the defeat of Caporetto in 1917 and prime minister of Italy in 1919. During his mandate he signed the treaty of … READ MORE

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  • Nivelle, Robert Georges

    By Denis Rolland

    Born in a Protestant family with an English mother, Robert Nivelle studied at the Polytechnique and Military Academy of Artillery. In 1914, he became a colonel and in 1916 lieutenant general and … READ MORE

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  • Oberstenaffäre

    By Sebastian Steiner

    The so-called “''Oberstenaffäre''” (colonel’s affair) was a political scandal in Switzerland which erupted after details of a close cooperation between Swiss, German, and Austro-Hungarian … READ MORE

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  • Occupation of Luxembourg

    By Richard Seiwerath

    The violation of Luxembourg’s neutrality started with the invasion on 1 August 1914, with the real occupation beginning on 2 August and lasting until 21 November 1918 when the first Allied troops … READ MORE

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  • Ojetti, Ugo

    By Selena Daly

    Ugo Ojetti was a journalist who, during the war, was tasked with the protection of monuments and artworks in the Italian-occupied territories. He was also instrumental in establishing and managing … READ MORE

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  • Oltener Aktionskomitee

    By Bernard Degen

    The ''Oltener Aktionskomitee'' was elected in February 1918 by the committee of the Swiss Federation of Trade Unions (''Schweizerischer Gewerkschaftsbund'', SGB), the executive board of the Social … READ MORE

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  • Olympic Games 1920

    By Karla Vanraepenbusch

    The 1920 Olympic Games in Antwerp, Belgium were the first instalment of the Games since before the war. The planned 1916 Games awarded to Berlin had been … READ MORE

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  • Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele

    By Spencer Di Scala

    A renowned jurist with lasting influence, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando served as justice and interior minister between 1916 and 1917, implementing liberal policies despite strong opposition. As prime … READ MORE

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  • Orpen, William

    By Donal Maguire

    William Orpen, portraitist and subject painter, born in Dublin, was one of the most successful artists of his generation. He enlisted in the British army in December 1915 and was appointed an … READ MORE

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  • Orphans (Italy)

    By Giuseppe Ferraro

    This article focuses on the efforts of the Italian government and certain institutions to care for the high numbers of war orphans in the country. In addition to a brief reconstruction of the … READ MORE

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  • Owen, Wilfred

    By Jane Potter

    Wilfred Owen was a poet and soldier who wrote some of the most memorable poems of the First World War. His theme of "the pity of war" continues to influence the cultural memory of 1914-18 and to … READ MORE

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  • Painlevé, Paul

    By Anne-Laure Anizan

    Paul Painlevé was a prominent French political leader from 1914-1917. He was the head of the Inventions Committee in charge of defining modern warfare. In 1917, at the turning point of the war, he … READ MORE

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  • Pais, Sidónio

    By Sérgio Neto

    The army major and university teacher Sidónio Pais served as the Portuguese minister (ambassador) in Berlin between August 1912 and March 1916. In December 1917, after a military coup, Pais became … READ MORE

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  • Pals Battalions

    By Peter Simkins

    The raising of the Pals battalions added considerable impetus to voluntary recruiting for the British army in the autumn of 1914 by combining patriotism and local loyalties, but subsequent … READ MORE

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  • Paris Guns

    By Christophe Dutrône

    Paris Guns refer to the German long-range guns that fired intermittently on Paris in 1918. A prodigy of the ballistic technology designed to terrorize the Parisian population, these weapons – also … READ MORE

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  • Patriotic Distance

    By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

    Civilians under military occupation in World War One found their existences severely circumscribed, but they exercised agency – not through large-scale, decisive actions, but through small-scale … READ MORE

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  • Pearse, Patrick

    By Joost Augusteijn

    Patrick Pearse was one of the leaders of the 1916 Easter Rising in which the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB), an extremely nationalist organization, attempted to establish an independent Ireland … READ MORE

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  • Pétain, Philippe

    By Olivier Cosson

    A theorist of infantry tactics in 1914, the First World War offered Colonel Pétain a bright career progression. He gained popularity during the Battle of Verdun (1916) and the French army mutinies … READ MORE

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  • Petit, Gabrielle

    By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

    Gabrielle Petit was a secret intelligence agent working for the British General Headquarters (GHQ) in occupied Belgium. She collected information on the German Sixth Army in the Tournai-Lille area. … READ MORE

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  • Petroleum

    By Oliver Gliech

    In World War I, the mobility of troops was of major strategic importance. New transportation means like trucks, as well as war planes, submarines and tanks, which began to revolutionize warfare … READ MORE

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  • Piave, Battles of

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    The two battles of the River Piave were fought between 10 November and 25 December 1917, and 15-23 June 1918, respectively. The Austro-Hungarian army, supported by German units, tried to bring about … READ MORE

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  • Picasso, Pablo

    By Annette Becker

    A citizen of neutral Spain, Pablo Picasso did not fight in the war, but his avant-garde artwork accompanied war culture right up to its use in … READ MORE

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  • Pirenne, Henri

    By Geneviève Warland

    Accused of refusing to collaborate with the German authorities, the Belgian historian Henri Pirenne was deported to Germany in 1916. His captivity led him to reconsider his view on German historical … READ MORE

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  • Poincaré, Raymond

    By Anne-Laure Anizan

    Raymond Poincaré, the president of the French Republic, asserted his authority as early as 1914, in a manner contrary to institutional practices that had prevailed since 1877. After his August 1914 … READ MORE

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  • Pope Benedict XV

    By John Pollard

    Much of the reign of Pope Benedict XV was dominated by the First World War. Pope Benedict deplored this war and thus, together with his Secretary of State, he tried to bring an end to it through … READ MORE

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  • Poppy

    By Matthew Leonard

    To many, the remembrance poppy is the defining symbol of the First World War, embodying loss of innocence and loss of life. Its more potent cousin, the opium poppy, ties the flower to conflicts … READ MORE

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  • Portuguese Expeditionary Corps

    By Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses

    The Portuguese Expeditionary Corps was the most important Portuguese military contribution to the First World War. Its troops began to arrive in France in February 1917 but it soon developed a … READ MORE

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  • Portuguese India

    By Célia Reis

    Although not directly involved in military operations, Portuguese India was linked to World War I through the capture of German and Austrian ships and the imprisonment of their crewmen. This period … READ MORE

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  • Portuguese Macau

    By Célia Reis

    During World War One, Macau's main problem was its relationship with China. This stemmed from the consequences of its internal tensions and the lack of recognition of the Portuguese borders. However, … READ MORE

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  • Portuguese Timor

    By Célia Reis

    The Portuguese territory of Timor was affected by the war mainly because of its proximity to the Dutch colony, the Dutch East Indies. Furthermore, without lines of transportation and communication, … READ MORE

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  • Post-war Repression

    By Xavier Rousseaux

    After fifty months of German occupation, a minority of French, and the majority of 7 million Belgians, experienced a new and massive process of retribution. A comparative study of these retribution … READ MORE

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  • Practice of Sports

    By Ansgar Molzberger

    During World War I, sport competitions became very popular amongst the soldiers of the Central Powers and the Allies. Especially on the Western Front, the transition of the war into a battle of … READ MORE

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  • Pre-war Socialist Pacifism

    By Elisa Marcobelli

    The Socialists’ opposition to war in France, Germany and Italy during the period of the Second International (1889-1914) was contradictory. They tried to combine internationalism, antiwar … READ MORE

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  • Prostitution

    By Journey Steward

    Prostitution was considered among the most important societal problems facing civilian-military authorities in belligerent countries during World War I. Despite growing military control of the … READ MORE

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  • Raemaekers, Louis

    By Ariane de Ranitz

    During the First World War, Dutch editorial cartoonist Louis Raemaekers was a fierce critic of the German invasion of Belgium and France. He played a key role in Allied propaganda with his … READ MORE

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  • Rape

    By Antoine Rivière

    Although rape was not usually systematic, it occurred frequently on all fronts during the First World War, during both invasion and occupation periods. It was often used in propaganda to discredit … READ MORE

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  • Rear Area on the Western Front

    By Larissa Wegner

    The rear area was the space behind the front, linking the operational zone with the home territory. While this area constituted a place of calm and recreation for soldiers returning from front duty, … READ MORE

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  • Reconnaissance and Observation

    By Charles Dusch

    Reconnaissance was aviation’s most important mission in the Great War. When war began, aircraft only performed observation and reconnaissance. The speed of intelligence gathered by aircraft changed … READ MORE

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  • Refugees (Belgium)

    By Michaël Amara

    In Belgium, the outbreak of the First World War and subsequent German invasion caused massive population movements. Hundreds of thousands of Belgian refugees fled the country to seek asylum in the … READ MORE

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  • Refugees (France)

    By Philippe Nivet

    During World War I, about 2 million French citizens had to leave their homes, due to orders from the French military and administrative authorities, the German invasion, German shellings, or … READ MORE

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  • Remembrance day: 11 November 1922-Today (France)

    By Rémi Dalisson

    As early as 1915, France considered celebrating those who died for the nation. After four years of debate among political parties and veterans, 11 November became a national holiday in 1922. From the … READ MORE

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  • Renascença Portuguesa

    By Eliana Brites Rosa

    The ''Renascença Portuguesa'' (1912-1932) was an important cultural movement during the republican regime (1910-1926) in Portugal. This intellectual group was founded in Porto, in the northern part … READ MORE

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  • Resistance (Belgium and France)

    By Emmanuel Debruyne

    In occupied Belgium and France, citizens opposed the German army with organized but non-violent resistance. They created networks dedicated to military intelligence gathering, escape lines, … READ MORE

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  • Ribot, Alexandre Félix Joseph

    By Daniel Mollenhauer

    Alexandre Ribot belonged to the French political elite for more than forty years. During the war, he was finance minister from 1914 to 1917 and prime minister (''Président du Conseil'') from March … READ MORE

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  • Rifles

    By Dieter Storz

    The rifle was by far the most common weapon used in the world war. When the major powers entered the conflict, they possessed around 11 million rifles. During the war, they either manufactured or … READ MORE

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  • Robertson, William Robert

    By David R. Woodward

    William Robert Robertson was the first British soldier to advance from private to field marshal. During the Great War, he initially served as the British Expeditionary Force’s quartermaster-general … READ MORE

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  • Roçadas, José Augusto Alves

    By José Luís Assis

    José Augusto Alves Roçadas led African pacification campaigns and was a colonial governor, as well as the commander of the Portuguese Expeditionary Force and Portuguese Expeditionary … READ MORE

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  • Rolland, Romain

    By Josepha Laroche

    A pacifist writer, Romain Rolland was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1915. During the Great War, he refused to choose one camp over the other and suffered nationalist attacks. In the post … READ MORE

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  • Room 40

    By Steven Czak

    Room 40 was a highly secretive British intelligence organization within the directorate of intelligence of the Admiralty. Its primary task was to intercept and decrypt German wireless and telegraph … READ MORE

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  • Rosado, Tomás Garcia

    By José Luís Assis

    Tomás António Garcia Rosado was a Portuguese expeditionary commander and colonial administrator. He served as commander of the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps during and shortly after World War I. … READ MORE

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  • Rubber

    By Oliver Gliech

    During World War I, motor vehicles took on a key role as transport facilities for troops and equipment. They needed tires made of rubber, which as a result became a raw material of strategic … READ MORE

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  • Ruhleben Internment Camp

    By Mahon Murphy

    The Ruhleben internment camp, situated on the outskirts of Berlin, held British civilian internees from its opening in November 1914 to its closure in November 1918. While the camp suffered from … READ MORE

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  • Ruhr Occupation

    By Conan Fischer

    The 1923-1925 Ruhr occupation by France and Belgium was triggered when Germany defaulted on its reparations obligations. A passive resistance campaign obstructed the invaders but collapsed in … READ MORE

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  • Russell, Bertrand

    By Alisa Miller

    This article examines how the outbreak of war in 1914 established Bertrand Russell’s reputation as social critic with an international audience. It considers his major writings on a range of … READ MORE

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  • Russian Expeditionary Force

    By Sofya Anisimova and Gwendal Piégais

    The Russian Expeditionary Force in France and in Macedonia (“Brigades russes en France et en Macédoine” in French and “Russkij èkspedicionnyj korpus” in Russian) was an ensemble of four … READ MORE

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  • Russian Expeditionary Force

    By Sofya Anisimova and Gwendal Piégais

    The Russian Expeditionary Force in France and in Macedonia (“Brigades russes en France et en Macédoine” in French and “Russkij èkspedicionnyj korpus” in Russian) was an ensemble of four … READ MORE

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  • Salandra, Antonio

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    Antonio Salandra was an important Italian politician in the early 20th century. When the Great War broke out, he was prime minister of Italy and had a decisive yet controversial role in … READ MORE

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  • Sassoon, Siegfried Loraine

    By Scott Ortolano

    Siegfried Lorraine Sassoon was a British soldier, poet and novelist. His work bitterly exposes the horrors of the First World War and offers a soldier’s account of the … READ MORE

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  • Schweizerischer Vaterländischer Verband

    By Dorothe Zimmermann

    The Swiss Patriotic Federation (''Schweizerischer Vaterländischer Verband'', or SVV) was a private, right-wing association which was set up between 1919 and 1948 in response to the nationwide … READ MORE

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  • Sea Power

    By Andrew Lambert

    Much attention has been accorded to the massive scale of military operations in the European theatre. However, sea power, which determined the control of global communications and was the key to … READ MORE

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  • Sembat, Marcel

    By Daniel Mollenhauer

    Marcel Sembat was one of the leading French socialists of the pre-war years. As minister of public works, he represented the socialist party in the ''union sacrée'' government formed at the end of … READ MORE

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  • Shaw, George Bernard

    By Adam R. McKee

    An Irish-born writer and critic, best known as a playwright, George Bernard Shaw was an ardent opponent to World War I. Already in his fifties at the start of the war, Shaw was outspoken in his … READ MORE

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  • Shell

    By Harold Allen Skinner Jr.

    A shell is a streamlined steel metal projectile, filled with a variety of explosive and chemical payloads, and detonated by an impact or time fuse. Delivered by complex systems to the point of … READ MORE

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  • Shells Crisis of 1915

    By Hew Strachan

    In 1914, quick-firing field artillery could fire more shells than domestic industries, geared to peacetime consumption levels, could supply. Armies, although recognizing the dangers, had … READ MORE

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  • Smoking and Cigarette Consumption

    By Michael Reeve

    During the First World War, governments, civilians and soldiers alike prized smoking for its morale-boosting qualities, in addition to a medicinal effect following combat and periods of intense … READ MORE

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  • Social Darwinism

    By Kathi Badertscher

    Social Darwinism was an intellectual movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries that merged Charles Darwin’s biological theory of evolution with theories about human … READ MORE

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  • Société Suisse de Surveillance Economique (SSS)

    By Florian Weber

    The privately organized SSS existed from October 1915 to July 1919 to prevent Swiss companies from forwarding goods and raw materials produced by the Entente to the Central Powers. The SSS grew from … READ MORE

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  • Soldiers' Equipment

    By Dieter Storz

    The soldier’s personal equipment had a dual purpose: it was intended to enable him to carry out his military duties, and it was supposed to guarantee, independent of stationary installations, the … READ MORE

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  • Soldiers' Humour

    By Alexander Watson

    Soldier’s humour, as expressed in jokes, songs and slang, reflected a dark, ironic and sardonic mind-set common among combatants. It usually contributed to individual psychological resilience, … READ MORE

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  • Soldiers on Leave

    By Emmanuelle Cronier

    Starting in 1915, periods of leave known as "permissionnaires" played a vital role in supporting the morale of troops, allowing fighters to rest, and letting some families come together. These … READ MORE

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  • Solvay, Ernest

    By Kenneth Bertrams

    Industrial tycoon and philanthropist Ernest Solvay transformed the chemical industry by developing a groundbreaking process for the manufacturing of soda ash. At the outbreak of World War I, he … READ MORE

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  • Somme, Battles of

    By William Philpott

    There was fighting in the Picardy region of France throughout the war. The 1916 Battle of the Somme is the most well known engagement in this region, notorious for its heavy casualties. The British … READ MORE

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  • Sonnino, Sidney

    By Paola Carlucci

    Sidney Sonnino was the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs during World War I. He negotiated the Treaty of London, defining the terms with which Italy would enter into the war alongside the Triple … READ MORE

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  • Sousa Lopes, Adriano de

    By Carlos Silveira

    The painter Adriano de Sousa Lopes was the only official Portuguese war artist in the Great War, stationed on the Western Front. Like most of his international colleagues, he produced remarkable … READ MORE

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  • Spanish Intelligence

    By Carolina García Sanz

    Spain became a centre of international espionage in 1914. Its strategic location in terms of the Anglo-French trade soon attracted German attention. The Germans waged an economic and propaganda war … READ MORE

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  • Spanish Neutrality

    By Carolina García Sanz

    The Spanish government maintained a benevolent neutrality policy towards the Entente Powers during the First World War. Liberal and Conservative cabinets decided it was the only position consistent … READ MORE

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  • Spy Fever 1914

    By Sebastian Bischoff

    Spy Fever describes an anxiety or paranoia that enemy spies might be active within one’s own nation. The phenomenon was widespread in all theatres of World War I from at least August of 1914. Most … READ MORE

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  • Steel Helmet

    By Nathan Watanabe

    The steel helmet was invented and fielded in response to increased lethality on the battlefield due to advances in artillery and fragmentation. World War I witnessed the first wide-spread use of the … READ MORE

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  • Stereotypes

    By Vanessa Ther

    This article summarises the main wartime stereotypes that defined war propaganda in Germany, France, Great Britain, the USA and Russia. It focuses less on particular details of each national enemy … READ MORE

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  • Stockholm Conference

    By Elisa Marcobelli

    The Stockholm Conference, or Third Zimmerwald Conference, was held from 5 to 12 September 1917. The subject of the discussions was the way in which a certain part of the socialist movement conceived … READ MORE

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  • Stormtrooper

    By Ralf Raths

    Storm troopers were soldiers in specialized assault units, which emerged in the German army during the First World … READ MORE

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  • Submarines and Submarine Warfare

    By Mark D. Karau

    During the First World War the German government made extensive use of submarines, initially against warships and then, as the war progressed, most heavily against merchant shipping. However, the … READ MORE

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  • Suffragettes

    By William Murphy

    This article briefly introduces the suffragettes and their campaign, reflecting on their pre-war methods and the divisions that emerged within the movement. It then discusses their varied, sometimes … READ MORE

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  • Supreme War Council

    By Elizabeth Greenhalgh

    The Supreme War Council was an Allied administrative organisation, created by the Entente governments in November 1917 to coordinate their military action. Its most significant achievement was to … READ MORE

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  • Tamagnini de Abreu e Silva, Fernando

    By José Luís Assis

    Fernando Tamagnini de Abreu e Silva was a Portuguese general during World War I. He organized the Instruction Division in Tancos and served as commander of the Portuguese Expeditionary … READ MORE

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  • Tanks and Tank Warfare

    By Michael David Kennedy

    World War I introduced new technologies and doctrine in a quest to overcome the tactical stalemate of the trenches. The first tanks had great potential that would be capitalized upon during the next … READ MORE

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  • Theater at the Front

    By Emmanuelle Loubat

    Whether on the Western or Eastern Front, by German, French, British, Canadian, American and other armies, shows were regularly organized on the front lines and at base camps during the Great War. … READ MORE

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  • The Battle of the Somme (film)

    By Nicholas Hiley

    ''Battle of the Somme'' was a feature-length British documentary film, released in August 1916 while the fighting on the Somme was still in progress. Filmed by commercial cameramen under military … READ MORE

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  • The Song of Craonne

    By Guy Marival

    The song now known as the "Chanson de Craonne" ("Song of Craonne") remains one of the most well-known First World War songs in France. Several months before the mutinies in spring 1917, its text … READ MORE

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  • Thiepval Memorial

    By Glyn Prysor

    The Thiepval Memorial commemorates “the Missing of the Somme”: more than 72,000 British and South African soldiers who were killed in the region between 1915 and 1918 but have no known grave. … READ MORE

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  • Thomas, Albert

    By Daniel Mollenhauer

    Albert Thomas was a French socialist who served as minister of armaments in the French government during the war. In the postwar period, he became the first director of the International Labour … READ MORE

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  • Tirailleurs Sénégalais

    By Richard Fogarty

    The ''tirailleurs sénégalais'' (Senegalese riflemen) figured prominently among the many indigenous peoples who served in the French army during the First World War. By 1918, France had recruited … READ MORE

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  • Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Rome

    By Martina Salvante

    At the end of the Great War, many countries determined that they would bury an anonymous corpse to symbolize all those who died on the battlefields. In Italy, the ceremony for the entombment of the … READ MORE

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  • Townshend, Charles Vere Ferrers, Sir

    By Justin Fantauzzo

    Sir Charles Vere Ferrers Townshend commanded the 6th (Poona) Division in Mesopotamia between April 1915 and April … READ MORE

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  • Toynbee, Arnold J.

    By Laura Di Fiore

    During World War I, Arnold J. Toynbee, as a member of the Political Intelligence Department, was charged with preparing analyses on the Middle East for the Paris Peace Conference. The global war was … READ MORE

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  • Trench Art

    By Paul Cornish

    "Trench Art" is a genre of folk art comprised of items created in wartime, or from war materiel. It may be made by servicemen and women or by civilians, and is particularly associated with the First … READ MORE

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  • Trentino

    By Nicola Fontana and Mirko Saltori

    Trentino is an Italian-speaking region which was the southernmost part of the Tyrol. With Italy’s entry into the war, it found itself in the front area. After the war it was annexed to the Kingdom … READ MORE

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  • Trépont, Félix

    By James E. Connolly

    As prefect of the ''département ''of the Nord at the outbreak of war, Félix Trépont encouraged the defence of Lille during the invasion, eventually oversaw the evacuation of men and material, and … READ MORE

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  • Troelstra, Pieter Jelles

    By Paul Moeyes

    Troelstra was a charismatic socialist leader who overestimated his influence and called for a socialist revolution in November 1918. His call was ignored and after suffering a nervous breakdown, he … READ MORE

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  • Union fédérale (UF)

    By Chris Millington

    Founded in Lyon in February 1918, the ''Union fédérale'' was the largest veterans’ association in interwar France. It campaigned for the improvement of veterans’ pensions and for the … READ MORE

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  • Union nationale des Combattants (UNC)

    By Chris Millington

    Founded on 11 November 1918 with the support of French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, the ''Union Nationale des Combattants'' was the largest right-wing veterans’ association in interwar … READ MORE

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  • Union of Democratic Control

    By David Monger

    The Union of Democratic Control was a prominent opposition group in Britain that particularly criticised the operation of British foreign policy and the role of "secret diplomacy". It advocated … READ MORE

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  • University of Ghent

    By Christine Van Everbroeck

    During the war, the Germans created a Flemish university in Ghent. By doing so, they fulfilled one of the Flemish movement’s principal … READ MORE

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  • Verdun, Site of Memory

    By Elise Julien

    The Franco-German battle of 1916 quickly became emblematic of the entire war to the French, while in Germany it subsequently inspired heroic literature highlighting the collective determination of … READ MORE

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  • Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    Victor Emmanuel III played an important, if often overlooked part in Italy’s decision to intervene in World War I on the side of the Entente. During the war, he managed to solve two political … READ MORE

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  • Villalobar, Rodrigo de Saavedra y Vinent, Marqués de

    By Emmanuel Debruyne

    Rodrigo de Saavedra y Vinent, Marqués de Villalobar was the diplomatic representative of Spain to Belgium from 1913 to 1926. During the war, his humanitarian activities in occupied Belgium … READ MORE

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  • Vittoria Mutilata

    By Brian R. Sullivan

    Gabriele D’Annunzio’s phrase “mutilated victory” infers that Italy’s wartime sacrifices went unrewarded, but excessive Italian demands and inept diplomacy in Paris provoked French and … READ MORE

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  • Vittorio Veneto, Battle of

    By Francesco Frizzera

    The Battle of Vittorio Veneto was fought between 24 October and 4 November 1918 by the Italian 4th, 8th, 10th and 12th Armies against the Austro-Hungarian … READ MORE

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  • Viviani, René

    By Daniel Mollenhauer

    René Viviani was a leading French politician in the early 20th century. When the war broke out, he was prime minister (''Président du Conseil'') and contributed to the formation of the … READ MORE

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  • Voices in the Storm (journal)

    By Nicole Billeter

    “''Stimmen im Sturm''” was a Swiss cooperative which published nine issues with decidedly Germanophile content. They not only defended the German war effort, but also argued against the French … READ MORE

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  • Vollmachtenregime

    By Oliver Schneider

    During the First World War, the Swiss federal government imposed a state of emergency, which was established to ensure the maintenance of Swiss neutrality, supply and integrity. As the war … READ MORE

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  • Vorarlberg Referendum

    By Wolfgang Weber

    The latter Austrian ''Land'' Vorarlberg saw the rise of a grass root movement for a political union with Switzerland between autumn 1918 and spring 1919. These ideas never materialized, however, as … READ MORE

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  • War and Comics (Italy)

    By Roberto Bianchi

    Comics played a very important role in the total mobilization in Italy. Firstly in the cities and then in the trenches, they were a new propaganda tool and explanation of the war for children and … READ MORE

    Entry

  • War Bonds

    By Steffen Bruendel

    The governments of all belligerent countries issued special loans to finance their expenditure after the war began. To mobilize the financial resources of their peoples required concerted war bonds … READ MORE

    Entry

  • War Poetry

    By Jane Potter

    This article examines the concept of war poetry and considers the range of poetic responses generated by the Great War from an international … READ MORE

    Entry

  • War Profiteers

    By François Bouloc

    As a long-lasting industrial war, the Great War led to the realization of considerable profits throughout industrialized countries. Both real and imagined, they structured many wartime facets, from … READ MORE

    Entry

  • War Propaganda Bureau

    By Florian Altenhöner

    The British government set up a War Propaganda Bureau in 1914. It came to be known as Wellington House after its location in Buckingham Gate, London. The organization was the centre of British … READ MORE

    Entry

  • War Toys

    By Sonja Levsen

    In the First World War, war toys were regarded as a means to strengthen children’s identification with the war effort. Production and consumption of war toys in 1914 to 1915 reached heights never … READ MORE

    Entry

  • War Widows

    By Peggy Bette

    One third of the 9.7 million soldiers killed or declared missing during the Great War left behind a widow. The mourning of these women was conditioned as much by the social conventions practiced … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Wilhelmina, Queen of the Netherlands

    By Paul Moeyes

    Queen Wilhelmina was by nature a forceful leader. The First World War showed that she lacked the meekness and patience that the head of a small neutral state … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Wireless Telegraphy

    By Heidi J.S. Tworek

    Wireless telegraphy became an integral part of warfare on the ground, in the air, and at sea by 1918. Wireless helped to make the war global, though historians still debate its impact on the course … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA)

    By Emma Hanna

    The YMCA was a Christian charitable organization that provided a range of rest and recreational facilities for soldiers in Britain and on various fronts during the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Ypres, Battles of

    By Spencer Jones

    The Belgian city of Ypres is synonymous with the First World War. Ypres gave its name to three major battles: First Ypres (19 October - 22 November 1914), Second Ypres (21 April - 25 May 1915) and … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Ypres Menin Gate

    By Dominiek Dendooven

    The Menin Gate in Ypres is the best known of the memorials to the missing in the Commonwealth War Graves Commission's care. Designed by architect Sir Reginald Blomfield it is where the Last Post, the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Zeppelin (Airship)

    By Charles Dusch

    Zeppelins heralded the potential of strategic bombing. Although airships were originally used for maritime and army reconnaissance, Germany was first to employ them as a strategic weapon. The German … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Zimmerwald Conference

    By Bernard Degen

    Anti-war socialists from ten countries met in Zimmerwald in September 1915. They adopted a manifesto and founded the International Socialist Commission (ISC), with its headquarters in Bern. A … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Züblin-Spiller, Else

    By Elisabeth Joris

    In the context of the Swiss organisation ''Schweizer Verband Soldatenwohl ''Else Spiller initiated facilities for soldiers providing alcohol-free catering (''Soldatenstuben'') and organized social … READ MORE

    Entry

See also

  • Air Warfare

    By Ross Mahoney and James Pugh

    This article considers the use and evolution of air power during the First World War. By focusing on the principal air power roles – control of the air, tactical, strategic, and naval and maritime … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Alliance System 1914

    By Günther Kronenbitter

    Alliances were an important feature of the international system on the eve of World War I. The formation of rival blocs of Great Powers has previously considered a major cause of the outbreak of war … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Animals

    By Lucy Betteridge-Dyson

    During the First World War millions of animals were utilised for war work, and creatures great and small were a day-to-day part of most soldiers’ lives. Horses, dogs, and pigeons were used … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Antisemitism

    By Werner Bergmann and Ulrich Wyrwa

    The First World War and its direct repercussions in the postwar period (revolution, counterrevolution, the founding of republics, and the Paris peace treaties) mark a profound caesura not only in the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Arms Race prior to 1914, Armament Policy

    By Eric Brose

    New weapons produced during the Industrial Revolution in the late 1800s heightened existing tensions among European nations as countries strove to outpace their enemies technologically. This … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Art

    By Sue Malvern

    The nature of the First World War put an end to traditions for battle painting. Instead, war art by younger more progressive artists was the best received because it was judged the most authentic. … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Atrocities

    By Alan Kramer

    The term "atrocity" describes an act of violence condemned by contemporaries as a breach of morality or the laws of war. "Atrocities" are culturally constructed; by 1914, an international discourse … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Bereavement and Mourning

    By Manfred Hettling and Tino Schölz

    In the modern era, new forms of mourning and meaning-making for fallen soldiers emerged. The human losses of the First World War were largely mourned, honoured and remembered within … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War

    By André Loez

    Soldiers’ attitudes towards the Great War are a controversial issue, as they prove difficult to assess and raise complex methodological questions. They evolved during the course of the conflict, … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Burgfrieden/Union sacrée

    By Gerd Krumeich

    France and Germany remained principal protagonists of the First World War. This essay will examine the reasons why both nations believed they were in a legitimate war of defense, for which domestic … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Caricatures

    By Eberhard Demm

    This article presents cartoonists as patriotic propagandists mobilizing their pens and brushes for the national cause during the war. It analyses their techniques for arousing emotions such as … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Censorship

    By Eberhard Demm

    Censorship was an indispensable war weapon: its task was to keep the people in an atmosphere of utter ignorance and unshaken confidence in the authorities, and to allow their boundless indoctrination … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Battlefield Tourism)

    By Romain Fathi

    The centenary of the First World War has been a catalyst for battlefield tourism. The creation of new museums, memorials, statues, commemorative trails and the like has strengthened the Great War’s … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Computer Games)

    By Chris Kempshall

    The First World War centenary saw an emergence of new portrayals of the conflict in computer games. These new games sought either to tell new stories of war and conflict during the time period or to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Education, Pedagogy, Youth Programs)

    By Catriona Pennell

    The centenary of the First World War revealed palpable anxieties around a loss of connection to an event that was now 100 years old and without any living survivors. As a result, a good degree of … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Historiography)

    By Jost Dülffer

    Innovative historical scholarship played an important role in the shaping of memory during the centenary of the First World War. It guided international public memory, was part of it and as such … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Internet)

    By Lorna M. Hughes and Ian G. Anderson

    The centenary events surrounding the First World War have produced a significant amount of digital content in various forms, and thus has set a precedent for how large scale post-war memorisation can … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Libraries)

    By Matthew Shaw

    Libraries (local, specialist, and national) contributed in numerous and important ways to commemorative activities during the centenary of the First World War. These included making use of their … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Museums)

    By Andrea Brait

    This article discusses how European museums – in particular, national war museums – dealt with the centenary of World War I. These museums still tend to tell the story of World War I from a … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Centenary (Visual Arts)

    By Paul Gough

    The commemorative period between 2014 and 2018 was marked globally by numerous exhibitions of original artworks that had been commissioned and created during and immediately after World War 1. Most … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Children and Youth

    By Andrew Donson

    Mass conscription recast relationships in families, raised minors’ potential as wage earners, and decreased supervision over them. War ravaged the health of young people in Central Europe while … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Civilian and Military Power

    By Lawrence Sondhaus

    By 1914 the leading states had succumbed to varying degrees of militarism, subordinating other interests to those of the armed forces, yet all were governed by regimes in which the ultimate authority … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Civilian Morale

    By Matteo Ermacora

    This article deals with civilian morale during the First World War. Between 1915 and 1918, governments “discovered” the importance of civilian morale and developed vast systems of surveillance to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Colonial Empires after the War/Decolonization

    By James E. Kitchen

    The First World War saw the colonial empires of France and Britain mobilised to aid European and imperial war efforts. This mobilisation and the difficulties of demobilisation placed considerable … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Commemoration, Cult of the Fallen

    By Stéphane Tison

    The First World War ushered in an unprecedented wave of commemorations. Mass death elicited a construction spree in memorial objects and sites across all countries and territories involved in the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Controversy: The Media's Responsibility for Crises and Conflicts in the Age of Imperialism

    By Peter Geiss

    The article discusses the role of the media in the complex international process leading to the First World War with a focus on the press of the great powers. Recent research has shown that the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Controversy: Total War

    By Daniel Marc Segesser

    Total war is a controversial term used in the past by politicians, publicists and military officers as well as by computer specialists and academics in the present. Since its conception by French … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Controversy: War Culture

    By Pierre Purseigle

    Cultural approaches to the Great War have played a key part in the renewal of First World War Studies. French historians were instrumental to this process, not least with the introduction in the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Controversy: War-related Changes in Gender Relations: The Issue of Women’s Citizenship

    By Birgitta Bader-Zaar

    The idea that World War I was a watershed in gender relations has pervaded both contemporary narratives and historiography. In contrast to earlier studies, research now tends to give a more nuanced … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Demobilization

    By Gearóid Barry

    The end of fighting in 1918 raised hopes for swift and equitable military demobilization amongst soldiers and civilians. The timing and nature of demobilization varied greatly, though, due to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Destruction of the Ecosystem

    By Tait Keller

    This article examines the First World War’s ecological impact and shows that protracted environmental transformations resulted more from expanded industrial modes of production than heavy combat. … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Drugs

    By Łukasz Kamieński

    Throughout history, intoxicants were an important part of the war experience. The First World War was by no means an exception in that respect: its main “war drugs” were alcohol (mostly beer, … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Economic Planning before 1914

    By Martin Horn

    This article surveys the financial and economic planning for war before 1914 in the European Great Powers that initially entered the conflict – Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany and Russia. … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Enemy Aliens and Internment

    By Matthew Stibbe

    The internment of enemy aliens in the First World War was a global phenomenon. Camps holding civilian as well as military prisoners could be found on every continent, including in nation-states and … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Espionage

    By Emmanuel Debruyne

    During the entire war, warring powers used the “secret war” to try to break the balance of the battlefield. Generally created in the previous few decades, intelligence and security services saw … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Extra-European Theatres of War

    By Michelle Moyd

    The extra-European theatres of World War I have received far less scholarly attention than the war in Europe. This state of affairs is hardly surprising given the sheer magnitude of the Western Front … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Fascism and the Radical Right

    By Gustavo Corni

    The First World War was not only the precondition of the rise of fascist movements in a general way: more definitely, the fascists presented themselves as the heirs of the trench combatants. German … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Film/Cinema

    By Roger Smither

    The First World War played a significant role in the evolution of film both as a medium for reporting war and as a tool for the propagandist manipulation of public opinion to support the war effort. … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Food and Nutrition

    By Emmanuelle Cronier

    During the First World War, food became a major issue for military and civilian matters. This contribution aims to discuss the food situation in the belligerent countries in connection with global … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Forced Labour

    By Jens Thiel and Christian Westerhoff

    This article examines the conditions, forms and consequences of forced labor and recruitment during the First World War, especially in German-occupied northern France, Belgium, Russian-Poland and … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Governments, Parliaments and Parties

    By Torsten Oppelland

    One sees a wide range of political regimes from a democratic republic with universal male suffrage (France) to parliamentary, constitutional, or even oligarchical monarchies in the countries that … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Graphic Arts and Advertising as War Propaganda

    By James Aulich

    This article discusses the close relationships between national governments, advertising trades and print media industries and assesses their significance for liberal democracy and national identity … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Health, Disease, Mortality; Demographic Effects

    By Doina Anca Cretu

    The rapid spread of epidemics ravaged military personnel and civilians in and outside Europe’s warzones during the Great War. Further, the great influenza pandemic of 1918-1919 became a global … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Historiography 1918-Today

    By Jay Winter

    There have been four generations of historical writing about the 1914-1918 war. The first was composed of contemporaries who either fought in the war or helped run it, and spanned the period … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Hospitals

    By Alina Enzensberger

    Hospitals framed and configured the convalescence of wounded and sick soldiers during the Great War. Medical facilities behind the lines and in the rear often operated under difficult conditions. … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Imperialism

    By Boris Barth

    This article focuses on the extent to which imperialism contributed to the outbreak of the First World War. The first part describes the emergence of specific imperialist cultures and attitudes in … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Influenza Pandemic

    By Howard Phillips

    By examining the origins, pathways, demographic impact and consequences for the public, the medical profession and governments, of the so-called “Spanish” influenza pandemic of 1918-1919, this … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • International Labour Organization

    By Anita Ziegerhofer

    The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919, establishing both the League of Nations and another international organization: the International Labour Organization (ILO). The ILO was founded … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • International Law and the Laws of War

    By Jean H. Quataert

    The article examines international efforts to curb states’ war-making prerogatives in the second half of the “long” 19th century. It captures new humanitarian sentiments circulating … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Italian Front

    By Vanda Wilcox

    In May 1915, Italy attacked Austria-Hungary along the Isonzo River and in the Trentino, hoping to conquer territory which it believed to be rightfully Italian. An immobile, entrenched war of … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • July Crisis 1914

    By Annika Mombauer

    The international crisis that began with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914 and culminated in the British declaration of war on Germany on 4 August is referred … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Labor

    By Steven E. Rowe

    Across the major belligerent powers, industrial production and the mobilization and organization of industrial labor became central to the conduct of the First World War. States and private … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Labour Movements, Trade Unions and Strikes

    By James Thompson

    This article compares the history of labour movements during the war across a range of European countries. It charts the impact of the economic realities of the war upon labour and analyses the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • League of Nations

    By Anita Ziegerhofer

    READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Life and Death of Soldiers

    By Jessica Meyer, Chris Kempshall and Markus Pöhlmann

    While public memory of the First World War in Europe often focusses on the deaths caused by the conflict, soldiers who served not only died in the war; they also lived. That process of living … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Literature

    By David Budgen

    This article seeks to present an overview of First World War literature across many of the combatant nations from the outbreak of the conflict up to the beginning of the Second World War. Taking a … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Making Sense of the War

    By Jo Fox

    Claims to “just war” formed the basis for the propaganda campaigns of the First World War. Propaganda on all sides focused on three interrelated issues to endorse the decision to enter the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Maps, Geography and the Representation of Space

    By Ute Schneider

    READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Media Discourse after the War

    By André Keil

    The discourse about the Great War during the interwar period was shaped by numerous factors. The emergence of new media facilitated the use of new forms of expression and profoundly changed the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Medicine and Medical Service

    By Leo van Bergen

    It is impossible to talk about “the” medical care or “the” medical service of World War I. Medical care varied greatly, depending on geography, strategy, and national, social, or economic … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Memory of the War: Popular Memory 1918-1945, 1945 to the Present

    By Susanne Brandt

    What role do representations of the First World War play in media that reach a wide audience beyond the circle of experts? The following contribution focuses on this important question. Given the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Migration and Mobility

    By Marlou Schrover

    There is an ongoing debate among historians whether the First World War did in fact lead to drastic changes in migration and migration policies. The war certainly resulted in numerous severe … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Militarism

    By Christian K. Melby

    Militarism is a vague term that has meant different things to different people at different times. It can be analysed as a popular phenomenon, or as a feature more at home in the halls of power, or … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Military Developments of World War I

    By David T. Zabecki

    Despite World War I’s reputation as a senseless bloodbath whose military operations were devoid of any intelligent thought, the period 1914-1918 was history’s single largest revolution in … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Military Justice

    By Steven R. Welch

    This essay offers a comparative survey of the practice of military justice among several of the key belligerent powers. Accused soldiers enjoyed little in the way of legal protection, and punishment … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Military Lessons of the First World War

    By Nikolas Gardner

    This article examines the lessons derived by the military organizations that participated in the First World War on land, at sea, and in the air. It demonstrates that while military and naval … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Moral Norms and Values

    By Gearóid Barry

    Change and continuity marked belligerent societies’ norms and values during the First World War. Normative institutions such as marriage and the family proved basically resilient but … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Museums

    By Jennifer Wellington, Aaron Cohen, Anne Hertzog and Susanne Brandt

    This article describes the lives and afterlives of the First World War museums in France, Russia, Germany, and in Britain and its Dominions Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In all these polities, … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Mutilation and Disfiguration

    By Julie Anderson

    The First World War created disfigured and mutilated bodies on a grand scale. Never before had the bodies of soldiers been so devastated by a conflict. Developments in established weapons such as … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Nationalism

    By John Paul Newman

    This article offers an overview of the progress of nationalism and the national idea starting with its origins as a mass political programme during the French Revolution and tracing its passage up to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Naval Warfare

    By Eric W. Osborne

    All of the great belligerent states of World War I were naval powers and engaged in operations around the globe. While the course of the war did not unfold as predicted by naval officials, it did … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Negotiating and Mediating Conduct of War

    By Matthew Stibbe

    Many issues surrounding the conduct of war in the years 1914-1918 were impervious to international negotiation or mediation, due either to a complete lack of consensus or to an absence of trust and … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Non-European Soldiers

    By Richard Fogarty and Andrew Tait Jarboe

    This article examines the use by Great Britain and France of colonial subjects from their empires to fight during the First World War. Other Great War soldiers hailed from locations outside of … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Occupation during the War

    By Gustavo Corni

    After an initial wave of interest in 1914 and the immediate post-war period, international historiography long neglected the wartime occupation of territories inhabited by large civilian populations. … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • On the Road to Modern War

    By Dennis Showalter

    The Great War was never considered the “war to end all wars” by the states and armed forces in conflict. The war’s legacies were processed in a wide variety of ways depending on forms of … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Organization of War Economies

    By Matthias Blum, Jari Eloranta and Pavel Osinsky

    The First World War was a global conflict that caught most of the participants ill-prepared for the demands of total war. Economic mobilization beyond the initial needs of the troops involved … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Othering/Atrocity Propaganda

    By Steffen Bruendel

    In August 1914, a targeted and systematic manipulation of opinion by the media, intellectuals and authorities started. Atrocities were attributed to the enemies that arose from preformed images or … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Pacifism

    By David S. Patterson

    The idea of peace in total war may seem irrelevant, but pacifism, or peace activism, did exist during the First World War. A seemingly robust European peace movement existed before 1914, but it … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Peace Initiatives

    By Ross Kennedy

    This paper examines major peace initiatives during World War I. It describes efforts by the chief European belligerents to split apart enemy coalitions with separate peace settlements as well … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Photography

    By Hilary Roberts

    The First World War represents a watershed in the history of war photography. It was the first conflict to be photographed in detail by all the participants and the first in which photography was … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Post-war Economies

    By Dietmar Rothermund

    Post-war economies were beset with problems, ultimately leading to the Great Depression that ruined the world economy and resulted in “beggar-thy-neighbour” national policies. Roosevelt’s … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Post-war Societies

    By Richard Bessel

    The First World War caused unprecedented disruption to societies across the globe, from Western and (especially) Central and Eastern Europe to East Africa. While many survivors could celebrate an end … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Post-war Welfare Policies

    By Pierluigi Pironti

    The Great War gave new impulses to the further development of public welfare systems which had emerged in previous decades. The desire for the social protection of the population and the restoration … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Press/Journalism

    By Florian Keisinger

    Word War I had a significant impact on the evolution of the European media scene. Before the start of the war, newspapers in Europe were increasingly popular, free and independent, and transnational. … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Pre-war Military Planning

    By Matthew S. Seligmann

    German and British war planning has attracted a great deal of attention, but also generated a great deal of controversy. This entry charts and evaluates these debates. In the process it outlines the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Prisoners of War

    By Heather Jones

    The First World War marked the shift from a 19th century, relatively ''ad hoc'' management of prisoners of war, to the 20th century’s sophisticated prisoner of war camp … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Propaganda at Home and Abroad

    By Eberhard Demm

    This article summarizes and compares the principal arguments and strategies of propaganda at the home front, the military front, as well as in neutral and enemy countries. These included the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Propaganda: Media in War Politics

    By Stephen Badsey

    Propaganda played an important part in the politics of the war, but was only successful as part of wider political and military strategies. For each belligerent, the most effective and important … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Property Rights and Economic Nationalism

    By Daniela L. Caglioti

    This article explores the policies adopted and implemented against enemy property from the beginning of the Great War to the signing of the peace treaties in Europe. Breaking a long-standing … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Raw Materials

    By Pierre Chancerel

    Raw materials were vital during the First World War. Due to the armaments production, the belligerents’ needs increased significantly, while the available resources fell. Each country intended both … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Red Cross

    By Cédric Cotter

    National Red Cross societies played a very important role in the First World War. They supported armies’ medical services, brought relief to prisoners of war and sometimes organized their … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Refugees

    By Peter Gatrell

    This article addresses the scale of wartime population displacement in continental Europe, the relief efforts made on behalf of refugees, their impact on host communities, and the cultural … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Religious Mobilization and Popular Belief

    By Patrick J. Houlihan

    From the cradle to the grave, popular religion formed a necessary and vital, if analytically messy, part of the human experience of the Great War. The war had the potential to atomize and alienate … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Resettlement

    By Peter Gatrell

    The conduct of warfare in 1914-1918 included extensive population resettlement in all theatres of war in Europe, both as a result of pre-emptive decisions by civilians to flee in order to evade the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Revolutions

    By Chad R. Fulwider

    This article surveys the various movements toward social, national, and political revolution that emerged during and in the wake of World War I. The Russian revolutions of 1917 serve as the first … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Rural Society

    By Matteo Ermacora

    The paper describes the impact of war on peasantry and its mobilisation in the war effort. While observers portrayed the countryside as rich and callous towards urban shortages or waging war, the … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Schools and Universities

    By Andrew Donson

    The military service of teachers and the mobilization of schoolchildren for voluntary war work deeply disrupted schooling, especially in Central Europe. In continental Europe, war infused curricula … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Science and Technology

    By Jeffrey Johnson

    Wartime science and technology developed in the context of the Second Industrial Revolution, with far-reaching consequences for national and international scientific institutions and social … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Sea Transport and Supply

    By Michael B. Miller

    Allied capacity at sea to sustain global transport and supply determined their ability to prevail in the First World War. The deployment of convoys to triumph over submarine warfare was an important … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Sexuality, Sexual Relations, Homosexuality

    By Jason Crouthamel

    This article provides an international overview of the history of sexuality in the Great War, including (1) the venereal disease epidemic, prostitution, and expanding state surveillance of sexuality; … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Social Conflict

    By Claire Morelon

    This article deals with the nature of social conflict during the war. The length of the conflict and growing food shortages on the home front strained relations between individuals and between social … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Social Costs of War

    By Kimberly A. Redding

    This article explores how the anticipation, reality, and memory of sacrifice informed experiences and legacies of World War I. Drawing on representative examples from multiple nations, I suggest that … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Soldier Newspapers

    By Robert L. Nelson

    Soldier newspapers are a massive, yet little used primary source of the First World War. They were read and written by the almost universally literate men at or near the front in the French, British, … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Staging War. Theatre 1914-1918

    By Eva Krivanec

    From 1914 to 1918, theatres in all major European cities staged plays – comedies, operettas, revues, classical and modern dramas, music hall shows or sensational plays – day after day. The lively … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • State, Civil Society and Relief Organizations for War

    By Branden Little

    A vast array of initiatives designed to counteract the destructiveness of the First World War was developed by states and societies across the world. Protecting the bodies and minds of soldiers from … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Churches

    By Patrick J. Houlihan

    Reflecting current historiography, this article focuses primarily on Christian churches centered in the main European theater of the Great War, including more global interactions with the other … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Everyday as Involved in War

    By Tammy M. Proctor

    This essay examines how the "everyday" functions in war, not only for those on the home fronts, but for those in combat roles and for those living between the lines. Five important qualities, among … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Historiography of the Origins of the First World War

    By William Mulligan

    The debate about the origins of the war remains a vibrant area of historical research. It has been characterised by a number of features. First, from the outset, political concerns shaped the debate, … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Military at Home

    By Odile Roynette

    Regardless of whether it was based on volunteer enlistment or conscription, mass mobilization in all of the countries at war between 1914 and 1918 completely upended the pre-war relationships that … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Military Collapse of the Central Powers

    By Graydon A. Tunstall

    October 1918 witnessed the collapse of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies, both greatly affected by war-weariness and starvation. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy lost any remaining loyalty from its … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Paris Peace Conference and its Consequences

    By Alan Sharp

    This article offers an overview of peacemaking after the First World War from the armistices of 1918 until 1923. It considers the outcomes of the five Parisian treaties (Versailles, Saint-Germain and … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • The Way to War

    By Samuel R. Williamson, Jr.

    Imperialism shaped almost every facet of international politics from 1898 to 1914. Imperial concerns brought Britain into entente relationships with France and Russia. This Triple Entente often … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Transportation and Logistics

    By Ian M. Brown

    The Great War witnessed mass armies battling with modern, quick-firing weapons systems and using consumables of all kinds - ammunition, food, water, soldiers - at rates that had not been seen before. … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Urban Societies and Cities

    By Andrew Lees

    Cities — with their comparatively large and dense but also vulnerable populations — went from being theaters of mass mobilization in favor of the political status quo to being sites of domestic … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Venereal Diseases

    By Journey Steward and Nancy M. Wingfield

    This essay traces belligerent policies toward venereal disease (VD) on the fighting and home fronts in Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain, Russia, and later, the United States. VD rates … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Veterans' Associations

    By Julia Eichenberg

    Veterans’ associations formed an influential social movement during the interwar period. They provided the platform for former soldiers to commemorate the war and their fallen comrades and to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Visualization of Violence

    By Mark Connelly

    This piece explores the visualisation of violence for home front audiences and shows that violence was often hinted at very strongly, but the actual act was avoided. All home front audiences were … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • War Aims and War Aims Discussions

    By Georges-Henri Soutou

    Despite what some believe, there is still a lot to say and learn about the First World War, particularly with regard to war aims. A lot of focus is currently placed on the cultural, social and … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • War Correspondents

    By Tim Luckhurst

    At its outbreak, newspapers in the Allied and neutral democracies hoped to present vivid descriptions of the First World War. They were soon frustrated. Censorship obstructed the adventurous style of … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Warfare 1914-1918

    By William Philpott

    Static “trench warfare” belied a dynamic transformation in warfare between 1914 and 1918. Every army grappled with the same issues: how to end a strategic stalemate occasioned by their ability to … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • War Finance

    By Nicholas Mulder

    The Great War required war-making states to mobilize and sustain the financial resources for a global war on an unprecedented scale. What made war finance during the conflict so special is that this … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • War Letters: Communication between Front and Home Front

    By Martha Hanna

    In nations where literacy was well-established by 1914, letter-writing was critical to the emotional well-being of soldiers and their families. Men in uniform often circumvented the censors and sent … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • War Losses

    By Antoine Prost

    Military sources provide the primary statistics of war losses and casualties during World War I. In order to review and eventually revise their figures, one must understand how military statistics … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • War Psychiatry and Shell Shock

    By Fiona Reid

    During the First World War soldiers from all combatant nations suffered from a wide range of debilitating nervous complaints as a result of the stresses and strains of modern warfare. War … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Wartime Emotions: Honour, Shame, and the Ecstasy of Sacrifice

    By Ute Frevert

    Through investigating the pivotal role of honour in private and public matters, in foreign and domestic relations, and in propaganda and everyday life during the First World War, this article … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Weapons

    By Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau

    To understand the Great War, one has to understand weapons. Weapons are linked to bodies, to attacks on bodily integrity, to suffering. Hand weapons form an extension of the body while at the same … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Western Front

    By Jonathan Krause

    The Western Front, a 400-plus mile stretch of land weaving through France and Belgium from the Swiss border to the North Sea, was the decisive front during the First World War. Whichever side won … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Willingly to War. Public Response to the Outbreak of War

    By Jean-Jacques Becker

    It may surprise us to learn that some sectors of the European public were in favour of the war in 1914. The impact of modern weapons was not well understood and many people in the government, … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Women’s Mobilization for War

    By Susan R. Grayzel

    This article explores women’s economic, social, and political responses to the First World War. It addresses their mobilization including their engagement with the war effort as well as their … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Women War Reporters

    By Stephanie Seul

    Female war reporters from belligerent and neutral countries were present in the major war theatres in Europe and the Middle East throughout 1914 to 1918. While admission of journalists to the war … READ MORE

    Thematic

  • Xenophobia

    By Thomas Brodie

    This article provides an overview of xenophobia during the First World War - namely, the ways in which the conflict was justified and sustained by the growth of hatred for external enemies, and … READ MORE

    Thematic

Survey Articles (Regional)

  • Belgium

    By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

    Belgium, a neutral state, was forced into the First World War by a German ultimatum, a fact with considerable international resonance. The war had a deep impact on what was, in 1914, the most … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Denmark

    By Nils Arne Sørensen

    With its economy highly reliant on Great Britain, Germany and other European nations, Denmark had to navigate between the two belligerent blocks during the war. This combined with shortages and … READ MORE

    Regional

  • France

    By Nicolas Beaupré

    To study France during the “Great War” – as it was called as early as 1914 – involves focusing on a major Western state that was confronted with a growing demand for resources to fuel the war … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Great Britain

    By Stephen Badsey

    Great Britain was with its Empire the most powerful of the major belligerents, the most politically and socially stable, and the best able to endure the strains of the war. Its great naval, financial … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Ireland

    By Richard S. Grayson

    Ireland’s war experience cannot be separated from Irish politics. Indeed, the story is not one of 1914-18 but of 1912-23, as the vast majority of people sought to change Ireland’s place in the … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Luxembourg

    By Benoît Majerus and Charel Roemer

    Despite its neutrality, Luxembourg was occupied in August 1914, mainly for its strategic value. For four years, the national elite engaged in a difficult policy of cooperation with the German … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Norway

    By Karl Erik Haug

    Norway managed to stay neutral during the First World War, but the war still crept into Norwegian life and impacted it in numerous ways. With a large merchant fleet – the fourth largest in the … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Portugal

    By Maria Fernanda Rollo, Ana Paula Pires and Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses

    Portugal’s participation in the First World War was depicted by its supporters as a vital component of the consolidation of the country’s young republican regime (established in 1910) and its … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Spain

    By Javier Ponce

    This article examines Spain’s neutrality during the Great War, highlighting factors such as the lack of military resources; the division of public opinion and internal conflicts; and actors such as … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Sweden

    By Sofi Qvarnström

    For Sweden, the impact of the war was twofold. On the one hand, it was a test to the neutrality policy. Concessions and violations of neutrality got consequences for both foreign affairs and the … READ MORE

    Regional

  • Switzerland

    By Jakob Tanner

    As a neutral country, Switzerland was not involved in the devastating military conflicts of 1914-18. Nevertheless, concerning the economy, communications, diplomacy, secret services and war … READ MORE

    Regional

  • The Netherlands

    By Samuël Kruizinga, Paul Moeyes and Wim Klinkert

    The Netherlands remained neutral during the First World War, but was nevertheless significantly affected by it. Its army remained fully mobilized to counter any possible threat, and its economy felt … READ MORE

    Regional

Regional Thematic Articles

Encyclopedic Entries

  • Activisme

    By Antoon Vrints

    A minority of the adherents of the Flemish movement were willing to collaborate with the German occupier in the context of ''Flamenpolitik''. This minority labelled themselves “activists”, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Ador, Gustave

    By Irène Herrmann

    Ador was the third president of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and a Swiss minister during WWI. He displayed the charisma, the diplomatic skills and the decisiveness necessary to … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Aircraft, Fighter and Pursuit

    By Mark Wells

    The general trend in aircraft development during World War I was towards better-engined, stronger, higher flying, more heavily armed, and more capable airplanes. Strictly speaking, pure … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Aircraft, Reconnaissance and Bomber

    By Craig Morris

    Much like fighter aircraft, World War I reconnaissance and bomber technology advanced rapidly throughout the war. As aircraft designs that combined lift, range, and stability were key to both … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Alain-Fournier, Henri

    By Laurence Campa

    Reported missing in action in September 1914, Alain-Fournier is not officially considered a war writer because of his early death. The author of ''Le Grand Meaulnes ''has become a symbol for the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Albert I, King of the Belgians

    By Jan Velaers

    Albert I, the third king of the Belgians, played a leading role as supreme commander of the Belgian army during the First World War. For four years he defended the last piece of unoccupied Belgium … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Albertini, Luigi

    By Rosaria Leonardi

    Luigi Albertini was a journalist and editor-in-chief of one of the most important Italian newspapers, ''Corriere della Sera''. From the pages of his newspaper, he advocated for Italian intervention … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Alfonso XIII, King of Spain

    By Carolina García Sanz

    Alfonso XIII was a controversial Spanish king during the first decades of the 20th century. During the First World War he established a humanitarian office for prisoners and civilian … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Allenby, Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, Viscount

    By James E. Kitchen

    Field Marshal Edmund Allenby was a British army officer who commanded a variety of formations on the Western Front, including the Third Army (October 1915 - June 1917) and the Egyptian Expeditionary … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Alsace-Lorraine

    By Elizabeth Vlossak

    Alsace-Lorraine was a border region located between the Rhine River and the Vosges Mountains. Its role in French wartime propaganda, its geographic location, and its tumultuous recent history all … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Amiens, Battle of

    By Stephen Badsey

    The Battle of Amiens, 8-12 August 1918, was a decisive British-led victory that marked the start of the Allied counteroffensive of the Hundred Days campaign, leading to the defeat of the German army … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Amphibious Raids on Ostend and Zeebrugge

    By Mark D. Karau

    On the night of 22-23 April 1918, the Royal Navy attacked the German occupied towns of Ostend and Zeebrugge in an effort to block the canals that linked the two cities to the German naval base at … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Angell, Ralph Norman

    By Martin Ceadel

    Norman Angell (birth name Ralph Norman Lane), built a long career as an internationalist pundit on his best-selling book of 1910, ''The Great Illusion'', which argued that financial interdependence … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Apollinaire, Guillaume

    By Annette Becker

    Although he actually died of Spanish influenza, the trepanned avant-garde poet was the embodiment of France’s “head wound”. Apollinaire’s letters to the woman he loved during the war, Lou, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Arditi

    By Martina Salvante

    ''Arditi'' were elite assault troops in the Italian army. They also emerged on Italy’s post-war political scene thanks to newly formed associations. Even though many of them had ties to fascism, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Army of the Orient

    By Yohann Chanoir

    The French Army of the Orient is a military unit, which was created after the disaster of the Dardanelles Campaign (1915). Established at Thessaloniki with allied forces to fight against pro-German … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Artillery

    By Dieter Storz

    Artillery consisted of the military’s heavy firearms. As a branch of the armed forces, its purpose was to fire explosive-filled projectiles across relatively large distances. In contrast to the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Asquith, Herbert Henry

    By Garry Tregidga

    Asquith was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at the outbreak of war. He formed a coalition in May 1915 but accusations of ineffectiveness led to his replacement by David Lloyd George in December … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Atlantic U-boat Campaign

    By John Abbatiello

    Between February 1915 and the Armistice, Germany conducted three submarine campaigns against British, Entente and neutral merchant shipping. The final unrestricted campaign that started in early 1917 … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Attrition Warfare

    By Nicholas Murray

    Attrition warfare is the term used to describe the sustained process of wearing down an opponent so as to force their physical collapse through continuous losses in personnel, equipment and supplies … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Balfour, Arthur James Balfour, Earl of

    By Samir Seikaly

    Arthur James Balfour was a British Conservative politician and statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and was later Foreign Secretary. In the latter post, he issued the Balfour … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Balfour Declaration

    By Maryanne A. Rhett

    The Balfour Declaration, the document that set the stage for establishing the state of Israel, was the product of months of wordsmithing and political jockeying. The evolution of its final wording … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Baracca, Francesco

    By Irene Guerrini and Marco Pluviano

    Francesco Baracca was the most famous Italian aviator, and shot down thirty-four enemy airplanes. He began his career in 1910 as a cavalry officer and became an air-fighter in 1912. He fought in the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Barbed Wire

    By Alan Krell

    Invented in France in 1860, barbed wire was further developed in the United States, where it was used to restrict cattle and secure territory. Acquiring far more menacing qualities in the First World … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Barbusse, Henri

    By Laurence Campa

    Fulfilling the archetype of the war writer, Henri Barbusse is the embodiment of pacifist activism. His book ''Le Feu ''(1916) paved the way for a new genre, that of literary testimony. Acclaimed as … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Barthas, Louis

    By Rémy Cazals

    A barrelmaker in a French village and corporal at war in an infantry regiment, Louis Barthas was considered the spokesman of his squad. He wrote a reliable testimony about his experience fighting in … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Battisti, Cesare

    By Mirko Saltori

    Cesare Battisti was the leader of the socialist party of the Italian Tirol (Trentino) and, from 1911, a member of the Austrian parliament. At the outbreak of war he went to Italy to engage in … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Beatty, David Beatty, Earl

    By Chuck Steele

    David Beatty was a British admiral. He is best known for leading Britain’s Battlecruiser Fleet in its disastrous rendezvous with Germany’s High Seas Fleet at the Battle of Jutland. An audacious … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Beerenbrouck, Charles Ruijs de

    By Paul Moeyes

    Ruijs de Beerenbrouck was a Dutch Prime Minster who successfully dealt with the threat of revolution in November … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Belgian Soldiers

    By Tom Simoens

    This article briefly describes the 320,000 Belgian soldiers of the Great War. Who were they and what was special about the way they experienced the war compared to other … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bell, Gertrude

    By Laith Shakir

    Gertrude Bell’s earlier travels and intellectual interests, alongside her wartime intelligence-gathering activities, prefigured the role she would play in administering the new Iraqi state. In … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bergson, Henri

    By Stanley E. Gontarski

    Widely known as a philosopher in France from the publication of his first book in 1889, Bergson became an international celebrity with the publication of ''Creative Evolution'' in 1907. With the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bernhardt, Sarah

    By Emmanuelle Loubat

    Sarah Bernhardt was a French actress. During the war, she showed great commitment to the patriotic cause through her participation in performances at the front, appearance in propaganda productions … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Besant, Annie

    By Maria Framke

    Annie Besant (1847-1933) was a British supporter of Indian nationalism. During World War I she propagated self-government for India and set up the All-India Home Rule League. Her political work … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bettignies, Louise Marie Jeanne Henriette de

    By Chantal Antier

    Louise de Bettignies created an intelligence network for the British in occupied France. She was arrested, sentenced to death in March 1916 and deported to the prison of Siegburg. Sick, she died in … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bishops and Chaplains (Italy)

    By Sante Lesti

    Italian bishops and chaplains played a central role in making sense of the war by presenting sacrifice for one’s country as an act of charity and brotherly love. In addition to the 2,624 Catholic … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bissing, Moritz Ferdinand Freiherr von

    By Christoph Roolf and Thomas L. Gertzen

    Moritz von Bissing was born on 30 January 1844, in Bellmannsdorf, Silesia, then part of the German Empire. He served as governor general of the Prussian Army from December 1914 until his death on 18 … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Black and Tans and Auxiliaries

    By D. M. Leeson

    The "Black and Tans" were British ex-soldiers recruited to reinforce the United Kingdom’s police force in Ireland. The "Auxiliaries" were a temporary force of paramilitary police, composed of … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Bonar Law, Andrew

    By Stuart Ball

    Bonar Law was leader of the Conservative Party in Britain during the war. He entered Asquith’s coalition government in May 1915, and in December 1916 played a crucial role in Lloyd George becoming … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Border Occupation (Switzerland)

    By Michael M. Olsansky

    Shortly after the outbreak of the First World War, the Swiss army moved into a staggered defensive position in the northwest of the country, facing the Franco-German front. The southern border was … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Border Occupation (Switzerland)

    By Michael M. Olsansky

    Shortly after the outbreak of the First World War, the Swiss army moved into a staggered defensive position in the northwest of the country, facing the Franco-German front. The southern border was … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Borders (The Netherlands)

    By Maartje Abbenhuis

    The borders of the Netherlands were an important site of war experience for the Dutch, as well as a contested site of war interaction for the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Borms, August

    By Christine Van Everbroeck

    As a Flemish nationalist, August Borms actively collaborated with the Germans during the First World War. As a result of his ten-year imprisonment and his death sentence he became a true symbol of … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Boselli, Paolo

    By Vanda Wilcox

    After a long parliamentary career, Paolo Boselli became Italy’s 22nd prime minister in June 1916 after the fall of Antonio Salandra’s government. Charged with forming a unity … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Brändström, Elsa

    By Lena Radauer

    Elsa Brändström was the only neutral representative to work amongst prisoners of war (POWs) in Russia, Siberia, and Turkestan for five and a half years between winter between winter 1914 and summer … READ MORE

    Entry

  • British Expeditionary Force

    By Peter Simkins

    Between 1914 and 1918 the British Expeditionary Force grew from a small professional striking force into a mass army, which was not only bigger than any in Britain’s history, but was also capable … READ MORE

    Entry

  • British Mandate for Palestine

    By Avital Ginat

    The British Mandate for Palestine (1918-1948) was the outcome of several factors: the British occupation of territories previously ruled by the Ottoman Empire, the peace treaties that brought the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Brittain, Vera

    By Carol Acton

    Vera Brittain’s memoir ''Testament of Youth'', and her wartime diary published in 1981 helped to validate women’s experiences of the First World War, and especially the legacy of sorrow that they … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Broqueville, Charles Marie Pierre Albert, Baron de

    By Laurence van Ypersele

    Charles de Broqueville, chief of the Belgian government during the First World War, acted as liaison between the king and the Belgian government. He supported the king in his attempts to obtain peace … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Brussels

    By Chantal Kesteloot

    The Belgian capital was spared the anguish of combat, but the city suffered four long years of occupation. In fact, it became the most important occupied city during the First World War. For the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cadorna, Luigi

    By Anna Grillini

    Luigi Cadorna was a career military man, the son of a major general in the army of Piedmont. He quickly climbed the military hierarchy to become chief of staff of the Italian army from July 1914 … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Camouflage

    By Cécile Coutin

    A technique of concealment and protection, a means to deceive but not kill, camouflage was significantly developed during the First World War. The technique enabled many artists to put their talents … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Capello, Luigi

    By Andrea Argenio

    Luigi Capello was an Italian general who took part in the war on the Gorizia front. As commander-in-chief of the Second Army, many held him to be chiefly to blame for the defeat of Caporetto. Having … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Caporetto, Battle of

    By Anna Grillini

    The Battle of Caporetto, also known as the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo, remains the worst defeat suffered by the Italian army to date. It began at two o’clock in the morning on 24 October 1917 on … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Carnegie, Lancelot

    By Bruno J. Navarro

    Minister plenipotentiary for England in Lisbon, there was consensus about Lancelot Carnegie as a diplomat in Portuguese public opinion. He was recognized as one of the people responsible for the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Carrier Pigeons (Portugal)

    By João Moreira Tavares

    Since ancient times, carrier pigeons have been used successfully in various armed conflicts. After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/71, several European armies created a pigeon service. During World … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Casement, Roger, Sir

    By Séamas Ó'Síocháin

    Following a career as British consul and humanitarian investigator, Roger Casement became involved in the Irish nationalist movement and the Irish Volunteers. On the outbreak of war, he sought help … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cavalry

    By Douglas Kennedy

    By the beginning of the 20th century, field armies had integrated the combat arm of cavalry with the infantry and artillery branches for over a century. However, its involvement in battle … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cavell, Edith Louisa

    By Katie Pickles

    Edith Cavell was an English nursing matron executed by the Germans in Brussels on 12 October 1915 for assisting enemy troops. After her death, she became one of the most famous women of World War … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cendrars, Blaise

    By Laurence Campa

    The life and works of the poet Blaise Cendrars testify to a disturbing paradox: while encapsulating the trauma that was the result from his war experience, they also illustrate the creative virtues … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cenotaph

    By Glyn Prysor

    The Cenotaph is a major British war memorial. Standing in Whitehall, London, it was designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and first unveiled on 19 July 1919. It provided an immediate focus for public grief … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Champagne Offensives

    By Sebastian Lukasik

    In 1915, France’s Champagne region was the setting for two large-scale French offensives directed against German positions between Reims and the Argonne Forest. Despite enormous casualties and a … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Charleroi, Battle of

    By Erwan Le Gall

    The Battle of Charleroi (21-23 August 1914), in which General Charles Lanrezac’s Fifth Army was nearly surrounded by German First, Second and Third Armies, was one of the deadliest combats that … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Charost, Alexis-Armand

    By James E. Connolly

    Alexis-Armand Charost was bishop of Lille and a key notable during the occupation, playing an important role in protesting against German demands and encouraging charitable works. His complex sermons … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Children's Literature

    By Berenice Zunino

    Extracurricular mobilization of children through literature took place between 1914 and 1918 on the home front of most belligerent countries. Propaganda for children depended on the war’s effects … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Christmas Truce

    By Alexandre Lafon

    In December 1914, there were several truces between enemy soldiers along one part of the Western front. Widely publicized, they underscore how difficult it was for soldiers to adapt to the conditions … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer

    By Richard Toye

    Churchill was Navy Minister during the early stages of the war but was widely criticized over his handling of the Dardanelles campaign. He was demoted and soon afterwards resigned from the government … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Church of England

    By Stuart Bell

    In a conflict characterized as a Holy War between “right” and “might”, the support of the Church of England for Britain’s cause was unwavering. Those who had died in the cause of good (and … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Citizenship (Great Britain)

    By Nicoletta F. Gullace

    World War I had a profound impact on concepts of citizenship. Not only did hosts of people find themselves under new sovereignty at the end of the war, but many individuals had to contend with the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Clemenceau, Georges

    By Vincent Laniol

    During the war, Georges Clemenceau fought for a more efficient war effort and for parliamentary control of military affairs and, as a journalist, rejected unlimited censorship. As French premier, he … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Close Combat Weapons

    By Markus Pöhlmann

    The basic tactical question for all military powers prior to 1914 was how to approach and attack an enemy who was directing massive fire against the attacker and who was making use of natural or … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Coffee

    By Dorothee Wierling

    Before World War I, coffee had become a popular drink in countries in the northern hemisphere, but when the war broke out, it was not regarded as an essential commodity. This article describes the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Collaboration (Belgium and France)

    By James E. Connolly

    Collaboration is often associated with the military occupations of the Second World War, but there was a precursor to this multi-faceted phenomenon in occupied France and Belgium during the First … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Collins, Michael

    By Frank Callanan

    Michael Collins was a revolutionary leader who rose to become chairman of the Irish provisional government in 1922 and Commander-in-chief of its army in the brief interval that supervened before his … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Comité National de Secours et d'Alimentation

    By Michaël Amara

    The ''Comité national de Secours et d’Alimentation'' (National Committee for Relief and Food) was created in Brussels a few days after the start of the war to coordinate the action of notables, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Commission for Relief in Belgium (CRB)

    By Branden Little

    From 1914 to 1919, the Commission for Relief in Belgium directed an innovative and successful international food relief program for more than 9 million Belgian and French civilians who lived in … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Communication Technology

    By Elizabeth Bruton

    A selection of communication technologies, ancient and modern, was available at the outbreak of World War One. During the war, military communications evolved to meet new battlefield and military … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Comradeship (France)

    By Alexandre Lafon

    “United as we were on the battle front,” the rallying cry popularized by one of the two major French veterans’ associations created just after the First World War sums up the process of … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Coronel, Battle of

    By Andreas Leipold

    On 1 November 1914, the German East Asiatic Cruiser Squadron defeated the 4th British Cruiser Squadron near the harbour of Coronel, … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cort van der Linden, Pieter Wilhelm Adriaan

    By Paul Moeyes

    P.W.A. Cort van der Linden was the Dutch prime minister from 1913 to 1918. His cabinet managed to preserve Dutch neutrality throughout the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Costa, Afonso

    By Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses

    Afonso Costa’s name is indelibly attached to Portuguese interventionism. He led the government when Portugal entered the First World War in March 1916; participated in the first Sacred Union … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Croce, Benedetto

    By Adviye Damla Ünlü

    Benedetto Croce is an important figure for both Italian intellectual life (through his philosophical and historical writings) and the political history of Italy (through his work as a politician). … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Croix de Feu

    By Victor Demiaux

    An extreme-right movement, the Croix de Feu was a prominent political phenomenon in interwar France. Its core identity was its commitment to maintaining in the realm of politics what it claimed to be … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Cru, Jean Norton

    By Rémy Cazals

    Jean Norton Cru did not consider himself a historian. Yet his life’s work, ''Témoins ''(Witnesses), written for historians, is an exceptional book of historiography of 1914 to 1918 and a … READ MORE

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  • Dada

    By Josepha Laroche

    Dada, a transnational movement of artists, was founded in Zurich in 1916. It disappeared in 1924, after a sham trial against Maurice Barrès in 1921. Far from pacifism, Dada declared war against war. … READ MORE

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  • D'Annunzio, Gabriele

    By Vanda Wilcox

    One of Italy’s leading literary figures, Gabriele D’Annunzio agitated for Italian intervention in the war in 1915. After serving as a volunteer fighter pilot, he led a group of fellow … READ MORE

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  • Defence of the Realm Act (DORA)

    By Gregory Hynes

    The Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) afforded the British government extraordinary emergency powers during the First World War. DORA’s remit was expansive, and grew in severity throughout the war, … READ MORE

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  • Delesalle, Charles

    By James E. Connolly

    A local notable and mayor of Lille during the occupation, Charles Delesalle was forced to work with the Germans but also sought to protect the population as best as possible. In particular, he played … READ MORE

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  • Delvert, Charles

    By Michaël Bourlet

    Charles Delvert was one of the witnesses of the Great War. A graduate of the École Normale and a reserve officer in the 101st Infantry Regiment, he won fame in the Fort de Vaux fights … READ MORE

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  • De Valera, Éamon

    By Michael Laffan

    De Valera was a prominent figure in the Easter 1916 rebellion against British rule. He subsequently became head of the Irish … READ MORE

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  • Diaz, Armando, Duke of Victory

    By Alessandro Salvador

    Armando Diaz was an Italian officer and a general during World War I. In 1917, after the defeat of Caporetto, he replaced Luigi Cadorna as chief of general staff of the Italian army. He reformed the … READ MORE

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  • Discussion: Humanitarianism

    By Peter Gatrell, Rebecca Gill, Branden Little and Elisabeth Piller

    This is the first in what it is hoped will become a series of discussion forums hosted by ''1914-1918-online''. In this discussion forum, General Editor Peter Gatrell invited contributions that … READ MORE

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  • Dorgelès, Roland

    By Laurence Campa

    Roland Dorgelès is the author of the pacifist novel ''Wooden Crosses'' (1919), a great classic of French war literature. Although based on his personal experience, he was convinced that fiction … READ MORE

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  • Dreadnought, HMS

    By John Abbatiello

    Adopted in 1906, HMS ''Dreadnought'' represented an innovative battleship design that changed the nature of the Anglo-German naval race preceding the Great War. A hybrid Dreadnought battlecruiser … READ MORE

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  • Dunsterforce

    By Timothy C. Winegard

    Dunsterforce, officially called the British Military Mission to the Caucasus, was a secret force of 450 to 1,000 imperial soldiers commanded by Major-General Lionel C. Dunsterville. Its mission was … READ MORE

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  • Elisabeth of Bavaria, Queen of the Belgians

    By Laurence van Ypersele

    Queen Elisabeth was the third queen of the Belgians. Her attitude during the First World War propelled her to the mythic rank of "Queen … READ MORE

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  • Emigration (Portugal)

    By Yvette Santos

    This article analyzes the characteristics of Portuguese emigration to France and England during the First World War, which was provoked by the reduction of Portuguese emigration to traditional … READ MORE

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  • Empire

    By Erez Manela

    World War I was not simply a conflict among European states but a global war of empires. The fighting took place not only in Europe, but also in Africa, Asia, and across the Middle East, and it … READ MORE

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  • Eupen-Malmedy

    By Christoph Brüll

    Eupen-Malmedy is the name given to the two districts that Germany ceded to Belgium in 1920 as a consequence of the Treaty of Versailles. This cession and the semblance of a “referendum”, … READ MORE

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  • Expanding Bullets

    By Paul Cornish

    During the First World War both sides accused each other of employing illegal small arms ammunition – either expanding or explosive bullets. The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 outlawed … READ MORE

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  • Eyschen, Paul

    By Denis Scuto

    Paul Eyschen, prime minister of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg from 1888 to 1915, insisted on the neutral status of Luxembourg, but practiced a policy of accommodation towards German occupying forces … READ MORE

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  • Falklands, Battle of the

    By Paul G. Halpern

    During the Battle of the Falklands, the British naval force commanded by Admiral Sturdee defeated the German force under Admiral von Spee off the Falkland Islands on 8 December … READ MORE

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  • Fayolle, Émile

    By William Philpott

    Marie-Émile Fayolle commanded French forces on the Western Front throughout the war. In 1916 he led French forces in the Battle of the Somme and in 1918 he commanded an army group. A military … READ MORE

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  • Fear

    By Jan Plamper

    Of the two world wars, the First World War was special in that fear figured prominently in a number of domains, including military tactics, psychiatry, and first-person sources. Fear was to be … READ MORE

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  • Feminist Pacifism

    By Annika Wilmers

    A minority section of the women’s movements opposed World War I and organized the International Congress of Women at The Hague in April 1915. Its participants demanded women’s rights and more … READ MORE

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  • Ferry, Abel

    By André Loez

    Abel Ferry was a French politician and minister as well as an infantry combatant, who used his first-hand knowledge of the war to try and shape the official war effort. He died as a result of his … READ MORE

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  • Feuillade, Louis

    By Manon Billaut

    Louis Feuillade was a popular filmmaker in France in the years leading up to and during the First World War. He is known for his serial productions, which, with their cliffhangers, were effective at … READ MORE

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  • Fisher, John Arbuthnot, Baron Fisher

    By Matthew S. Seligmann

    John Fisher led the Royal Navy in the run-up to and in the early years of the First World War. A controversial figure in his lifetime and afterwards, his intentions and legacy are hotly disputed by … READ MORE

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  • Flamenpolitik

    By Antoon Vrints

    The German ''Flamenpolitik'' during the First World War aimed to instrumentalise the Flemish movement in order to ensure lasting German control over Belgium. It did not divide the Belgian or even … READ MORE

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  • Flamethrower

    By Paul Cornish

    The use of portable flamethrowers in combat was a First World War innovation. The German army took the lead in developing this form of warfare and remained the foremost practitioner of it throughout … READ MORE

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  • Flemish Movement

    By Christine Van Everbroeck

    The First World War engendered a rift within the Flemish movement, with some wishing to pursue the advocacy for Flemish rights and others preferring to await the end of the war to obtain new laws. … READ MORE

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  • Foch, Ferdinand

    By Elizabeth Greenhalgh

    Ferdinand Foch was a French general who commanded a corps and an army (1914), and then France’s Northern Army Group. He served on the army’s general staff in 1917 and was appointed Allied supreme … READ MORE

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  • Forain, Jean-Louis

    By Brett M. Van Hoesen

    Jean-Louis Forain was a French artist, who specialized in painting, print making, and illustration. Trained at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, he showed with the Impressionists. He worked as a … READ MORE

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  • Formation of the Royal Air Force

    By Mark Wells

    Created in April 1918 to overcome the complex challenges occasioned by wartime pressures, bureaucratic competition, and public outcry, the Royal Air Force became the world’s first independent air … READ MORE

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  • Forts

    By Miguel A. Lopez

    European militaries considered fortifications before the First World War as vital to their strategic planning. Advancements in weapons technology after the mid-19th century caused … READ MORE

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  • Franchet d'Espèrey, Louis Félix Marie François

    By Gwendal Piégais

    Louis Franchet d'Espèrey was a French general who took command of the Fifth Army at the end of August 1914, then commanded the Eastern Army Group and the Northern Army Group at the end of 1916. He … READ MORE

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  • French, John Denton Pinkstone, Earl of Ypres

    By Nicholas Lloyd

    Sir John French was the commander of the British Expeditionary Force between July 1914 and December … READ MORE

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  • Gallieni, Joseph-Simon

    By Julie d'Andurain

    General Joseph-Simon Gallieni was a colonial officer who became the Governor of Paris in 1914 and Minister of War in … READ MORE

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  • Garcez, Arnaldo

    By Carlos Silveira

    Arnaldo Garcez was the only official photographer of the Portuguese army on the Western Front, a fact that hints at the importance of his mission. Arriving in France in 1917, he thoroughly reported … READ MORE

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  • Garde Civique

    By Piet Veldeman

    In 1830, Belgium constituted a ''Garde Civique'' or Civic Guard''', '''a national institution to be deployed both for maintaining law and order and for territorial defence. In 1914, the Garde Civique … READ MORE

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  • Garros, Roland

    By Eric Mahieu

    Roland Garros was a well-known French aviation pioneer before the war and successfully fought in a squadron as a fighter pilot during World War 1. His invention, firing through axis propeller, … READ MORE

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  • Gas Warfare

    By Thomas I. Faith

    Gas warfare is a method of war that employs weapons that are designed to cause casualties primarily through the use of harmful chemical agents. The First World War constitutes the most extensive … READ MORE

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  • Gaulle, Charles de

    By Jason Musteen

    Charles de Gaulle’s service during World War I and his experiences as a prisoner of war shaped the future leader of France, strengthening his belief in offensive firepower and the need for France … READ MORE

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  • Geddes, Eric Campbell, Sir

    By Christopher Phillips

    Eric Geddes was the most prominent example of Britain’s deployment of businessmen in government. He was the driving force behind the reorganization of the British Expeditionary Force’s (BEF) … READ MORE

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  • Generalgouvernement Belgien

    By Christoph Roolf

    After the German Army had occupied wide areas of Belgium, the “Imperial Government General in Belgium” was established on 23 August 1914 with a governor-general at its head. Organized into a … READ MORE

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  • General Headquarters (Great Britain)

    By Nikolas Gardner

    General Headquarters (GHQ) was the organization that commanded all British and Indian forces in a particular theater of the First World War. The most prominent of these organizations was the GHQ of … READ MORE

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  • Genevoix, Maurice

    By Laurence Campa

    The war turned Maurice Genevoix into a writer. He embodied soldier loyalty and was the author of ''Ceux de 14'', a prime example of French literary narrative and a monument compelling us not to … READ MORE

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  • George V, King of Great Britain

    By David Freeman

    King George V served as a figurehead for the nations of the British Empire throughout the war. He and his wife, Queen Mary, provided inspiration and support for both the armed forces and the civilian … READ MORE

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  • German Communities and their Expulsion (Belgium)

    By Christophe Declercq

    At the start of the First World War, tens of thousands of Germans lived in Belgium, with noted communities in Antwerp and Brussels. How the Germans in Belgium experienced the war years, ranging from … READ MORE

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  • Germanophobia (Great Britain)

    By Panikos Panayi

    During the First World War Britain became gripped with a Germanophobic hatred in which both government and the press played a central role. This hatred impacted the German community that lived within … READ MORE

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  • German Spring Offensives 1918

    By Alexander Watson

    The Spring Offensives of 1918 were Germany’s last attempt to defeat the British and French armies on the Western Front, and thereby win total victory. Their failure by the mid-summer left the … READ MORE

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  • Giardino, Gaetano Ettore

    By Andrea Argenio

    Gaetano Giardino was an Italian general best remembered for his role as commander of the Fourth Army, the army of the Grappa, and as minister of war during the parliamentary crisis of June 1917. In … READ MORE

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  • Gibbs, Philip

    By Stephen Badsey

    Philip Gibbs was the most celebrated, and arguably the most important, of the British official war reporters attached by their newspapers to British General Headquarters on the Western Front from … READ MORE

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  • Giolitti, Giovanni

    By Spencer Di Scala

    Giovanni Giolitti favored the increased liberalization of Italy, which encouraged its estrangement from the Triple Alliance. He consistently refused to recognize that Italy’s partners’ aggressive … READ MORE

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  • Gorizia, Battle of

    By Francesco Frizzera

    The Battle of Gorizia, known as the Sixth Isonzo’s Battle, was fought by the Italian Third Army against the Austro-Hungarian Fifth Army between 6 and 16 August 1916. It resulted in the Italian … READ MORE

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  • Gouraud, Henri

    By Julie d'Andurain

    Henri Gouraud was one of the most important French generals during the First World War, commanding on the Western Front and in the Dardanelles. Prior to World War I, he served as an officer with the … READ MORE

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  • Graffiti

    By Julian Walker

    Graffiti expressed both subversion and enthusiasm for the war. It was used by officers and troops in all environments, signifying the survival of the individual and offering a place to comment on … READ MORE

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  • Grand Fleet

    By Chuck Steele

    The Grand Fleet was Britain’s most important manifestation of sea power in World War I. As the primary instrument of blockade in the North Sea, it was tasked with denying Germany the succor of … READ MORE

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  • Graves, Robert

    By Fran Brearton

    Robert Graves was a British writer who enlisted in August 1914. He fought at the Battle of Loos in 1915, and was wounded at the Somme in 1916. He published his first volumes of poems during the war, … READ MORE

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  • Grey, Sir Edward

    By Detlev Mares

    Grey was the longest-serving British foreign secretary of the 20th century. His time in office is controversial for his role in the outbreak of the First World … READ MORE

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  • Grimm, Robert

    By Adrian Zimmermann

    Robert Grimm was the most powerful socialist politician in Switzerland throughout the first half of the 20th century. As the organiser of the Zimmerwald and Kiental Conferences, he was one … READ MORE

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  • Guynemer, Georges

    By Eric Mahieu

    Georges Guynemer was a French fighter pilot. During World War I, he was known for his dangerous but effective fighting style. After his death, he became an aviation … READ MORE

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  • Haig, Douglas

    By Gary Sheffield

    Douglas Haig was Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force from late 1915 to 1919. Undoubtedly he was one of the significant generals of the war, but Haig's tenure of command remains very … READ MORE

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  • Halbwachs, Maurice

    By Annette Becker

    Declared unfit for military service, sociologist Maurice Halbwachs worked under Albert Thomas at the Ministry of Munitions. His work on memory (unwittingly) enabled reflection on the influence of the … READ MORE

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  • Haldane, Richard Burdon

    By Bill Mitchinson

    Liberal Secretary of State for War 1905-1912. Haldane’s reforms of the British Regular Army and its auxiliaries were instrumental in ensuring that Britain could dispatch an expeditionary force to … READ MORE

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  • Hand Grenade

    By Nathan Watanabe

    The hand grenade is a small hand-thrown bomb dating back to antiquity. Advances in chemistry and explosives technology saw the resurgence of the grenade shortly before World War I. Its effective use … READ MORE

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  • Hankey, Maurice Pascal Alers Hankey, Baron

    By William Philpott

    Maurice Hankey was responsible for adapting the British government’s administrative machinery to the needs of modern war. He became an influential behind-the-scenes adviser to British prime … READ MORE

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  • Harmsworth, Alfred Charles William, Viscount Northcliffe

    By Adrian Bingham

    Lord Northcliffe was the owner of the influential London newspapers the Daily Mail and The Times, and a powerful critic of the Asquith administration’s prosecution of the war. In the final years of … READ MORE

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  • Harmsworth, Harold Sidney, Viscount Rothermere

    By Adrian Bingham

    Lord Rothermere owned the London newspapers the ''Daily Mirror'' and the ''Sunday Pictorial'', and was the brother and political ally of Lord Northcliffe, the owner of the ''Daily Mail''. He was the … READ MORE

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  • Hervé, Gustave

    By Elisa Marcobelli

    Gustave Hervé’s dates of birth and death (1871-1944) correspond broadly to those of the Third Republic (1870-1940). His path is strongly linked to it and his ideas partly reflect its … READ MORE

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  • High Voltage Fence (The Netherlands and Belgium)

    By Alex Vanneste

    In 1915 the Germans built an electric fence along the Belgian-Dutch border, consisting of three lines of wires which were intended to stop all disturbing border activities that might severely harm … READ MORE

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  • Ideologies of Sport

    By Ansgar Molzberger and Stephan Wassong

    At the beginning of the 20th century, two different systems of exercise and training were internationally known: gymnastics and sport. As a result of the First World War, the boundaries … READ MORE

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  • Infantry

    By Jeffrey LaMonica

    The First World War precipitated a revolution in infantry tactics that changed the course of warfare. Armies adapted to modern industrialized war along a four-year learning curve, moving from … READ MORE

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  • Influenza Pandemic (Switzerland)

    By Patrick Kury

    The Spanish flu, the heaviest influenza pandemic in history, coincided with the end of World War One. In Switzerland, the flu had an immense impact on the relationship between the army command, the … READ MORE

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  • Inter-Allied Games

    By Sabine Chavinier-Réla

    The Inter-Allied Games were held at the Pershing Stadium in Paris, France from 22 June to 6 July 1919. Set up by the YMCA, these military Olympics were part of demobilization. The event reached … READ MORE

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  • Interventionism (Italy)

    By Stéfanie Prezioso

    Italy entered the First World War in May 1915, roughly ten months after it began. During those ten months, the battle of opinions for and against intervention raged on. Public meetings, … READ MORE

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  • Intimate Relations between Occupiers and Occupied (Belgium and France)

    By Emmanuel Debruyne

    During the invasion and occupation of 1914-1918, German soldiers had sexual relations with local women in Belgium and France. There were many cases of rape during the invasion, but the occupation … READ MORE

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  • Invincible, HMS

    By Paul G. Halpern

    HMS ''Invincible ''was a British warship belonging to a type commonly known as battlecruisers. They sacrificed protection in order to combine the large guns of a battleship with the speed of a … READ MORE

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  • Irish Home Rule

    By Conor Mulvagh

    The campaign for Irish Home Rule lasted from 1870 until 1914. When Home Rule became a realistic possibility in 1912, a period of political turmoil ensued. Parliamentary solutions to the impasse were … READ MORE

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  • Island of Peace (Switzerland)

    By Béatrice Ziegler

    During World War I, the idea of Switzerland as a peaceful island was created and propagated by many means, for example postcards. After the end of the war, this metaphor gained the status of a myth, … READ MORE

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  • Isonzo, Battles of

    By Alessandro Salvador

    The battles of Isonzo represented Italy’s main offensive efforts against the Austro-Hungarian Empire during World War I. The eleven battles took place between 1915 and 1917 along the Isonzo River … READ MORE

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  • Italian Irredentism

    By Matthew Stibbe

    This article examines the history of Italian irredentism before 1915; and its place its role in Italy’s entry into the war in May 1915 and in Austro-Hungary’s military governance of the … READ MORE

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  • Italo-Turkish War 1911-1912

    By Rachel Simon

    The Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912) took place mainly in Ottoman Libya following Italy’s invasion, not taking into consideration the fierce Ottoman and indigenous … READ MORE

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  • Jaurès, Jean

    By Rémy Cazals

    A philosopher, historian, and journalist (creator of'' L’Humanité''), Jean Jaurès defended the socialist program for workers and small farmers in the Chamber of Deputies and throughout France. … READ MORE

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  • Jellicoe, John Rushworth Jellicoe, Earl

    By Andrew Lambert

    John Rushworth Jellicoe was a British admiral, technologist and fleet commander. He commanded the Grand Fleet from 1914-1916, and was First Sea Lord from 1916-1917. He commanded the Grand Fleet at … READ MORE

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  • Joffre, Joseph Jacques Césaire

    By Mathieu Panoryia

    Joseph Joffre was commander-in-chief of the French army at the beginning of the First World War, which was supposed to be short. He fought to stop German progression and maintain the war effort in … READ MORE

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  • Jutland, Battle of

    By Michael Epkenhans

    On 31 May/1 June 1916 the British Grand Fleet and the German High Sea Fleet clashed at Jutland. It was the largest naval battle in history until the Battle of Leyte Gulf off the Philippines in 1944, … READ MORE

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  • Keyes, Roger John Brownlow, Baron

    By Joseph Moretz

    Roger John Brownlow Keyes was a British naval officer of the First World War. As Chief of Staff in the Eastern Mediterranean Squadron, he was a central participant in the Dardanelles-Gallipoli … READ MORE

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  • Khaki Election 1918

    By Luke Blaxill

    The "khaki" general election of 1918 was held in Great Britain almost immediately after the Armistice. It was the first held under what was almost universal adult suffrage. The result was a crushing … READ MORE

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  • Kitchener, Horatio Herbert Kitchener, Earl

    By Peter Simkins

    In foreseeing a long war and creating Britain's first mass army, Kitchener made a crucial contribution to the eventual Allied victory, but the widening nature of the conflict, and his own … READ MORE

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  • La Courtine, Mutiny of

    By Jamie H. Cockfield

    This article details the mutiny of two Russian brigades sent to France in World War I. The less rebellious of the two was finally disciplined and used to suppress the unruly brigade in 1917 in what … READ MORE

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  • La Dame Blanche

    By Pierre Decock

    La Dame Blanche was an intelligence network created in Belgium in 1916. It was essentially devoted to the observation of railways. At the end of the war, it was comprised of over 1,000 agents and … READ MORE

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  • Lafayette Escadrille

    By Edward A. Gutiérrez

    The Lafayette Escadrille was a French Air Service fighter squadron formed of American volunteers and commanded by French officers. It served from 20 April 1916 to 18 February 1918. Although their … READ MORE

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  • La Fontaine, Henri

    By Jacques Gillen

    Although he was a Nobel Prize winner, the name of Henri La Fontaine has somewhat fallen into obscurity. At the time of his Nobel Peace Prize award in 1913, however, he was a fundamental figure in the … READ MORE

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  • La Madelon (song)

    By Charles Rearick

    The music hall song “La Madelon” was first performed in Paris café concerts before the outbreak of war, but it did not initially catch on. Not until 1917 did it become a favorite – first among … READ MORE

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  • Landesstreik (Switzerland)

    By Bernard Degen

    From 12 to 14 November 1918, a national general strike took place in Switzerland, in which around 250,000 strikers participated. The strike largely ran an orderly course and was terminated by the … READ MORE

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  • Lanrezac, Charles Louis Marie

    By Michaël Bourlet

    Considered one of the best generals in the French armed forces, Charles Lanzerac commanded the French Fifth Army during the Battle of the Frontiers. However, at the end of August 1914, he was … READ MORE

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  • Lawrence, Thomas Edward

    By Tariq Tell

    T.E. Lawrence’s exploits during the Arab Revolt have acquired mythical status, making it difficult to distinguish between what he actually achieved and what was the product of his overactive … READ MORE

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  • Le Feu (novel)

    By Olaf Müller

    Henri Barbusse published the emblematic French war novel ''Le Feu'' in 1916. Given the context of its first publication, ''Le Feu'' was not critical of French propaganda; rather, it was part of a … READ MORE

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  • Léger, Fernand

    By Annette Becker

    Léger was fascinated by the front, but barely ever depicted what he saw in his work. His correspondence, however, offers a remarkable descent into the abyss of the … READ MORE

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  • Légion étrangère

    By Christian Koller

    The French Foreign Legion of the colonial era was mainly deployed in extra-European areas and consisted of mercenaries on five-year contracts. The situation during World War I, however, was … READ MORE

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  • Le Poilu

    By Chris Kempshall

    ''Le Poilu'' translates literally as “the hairy one” and was a collective identity assumed by French infantry during the First World War. However, the term, based upon the soldiers’ hair, … READ MORE

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  • Liddell Hart, Basil Henry, Sir

    By Alaric Searle

    B.H. Liddell Hart served as a British infantry officer on the Western Front in 1915 and 1916 until he was gassed during the Somme Offensive. He is best known for his military historical and … READ MORE

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  • Lloyd George, David

    By Ian Packer

    Lloyd George was a leading Liberal politician before World War I, who went on to play a central role in the United Kingdom’s war effort as Chancellor of the Exchequer (1908-1915), Minister of … READ MORE

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  • London, Bombing of

    By Ian Castle

    Germany’s aerial bombing campaign against Great Britain in the First World War, with London as its primary target, was the first sustained strategic bombing campaign in history. These raids, using … READ MORE

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  • London, Treaty of (1915)

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    The Treaty of London was a secret agreement signed by Italy, Great Britain, France, and Russia on 26 April 1915, bringing Italy into the First World War on the Entente side. It therefore had a … READ MORE

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  • Loppem Coup

    By Vincent Delcorps

    A few weeks before his entry in Brussels, on 22 November 1918, Albert I, King of the Belgians, held talks with various politicians in Loppem Castle. Some particularly important decisions were made, … READ MORE

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  • Loucheur, Louis

    By Daniel Mollenhauer

    Louis Loucheur was a French industrialist and politician. From December 1916 until the end of the war, he served as undersecretary of state for artillery and munitions and later as armaments … READ MORE

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  • Lyautey, Louis Hubert Gonzalve

    By Julie d'Andurain

    During World War One, Hubert Lyautey was the French Resident-General in Morocco and became Minister of the French War Department in … READ MORE

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  • Lys, Battle of the

    By Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses

     … READ MORE

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  • MacDonald, James Ramsay

    By David Howell

    Ramsay MacDonald opposed British entry into the European conflict in 1914. Although often represented as anti-war, he subsequently supported the Allied cause. He criticised balance of power diplomacy … READ MORE

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  • Machado, Bernardino

    By Sérgio Neto

    Bernardino Machado was the prime minister of Portugal during the July Crisis of 1914. As president of the Portuguese Republic (1915-1917) he promoted the formation of a Sacred Union Cabinet that … READ MORE

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  • Machine Gun

    By Paul Cornish

    Between 1914 and 1918, the machine gun played an ever-increasing role on the battlefield. Today, even though artillery was responsible for the majority of deaths, the machine gun is the weapon most … READ MORE

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  • Malvy, Louis-Jean

    By Jean-Yves Le Naour

    French Interior Minister when the war was declared, Louis Malvy embodied the Union sacrée and the quest for social peace. In 1917, he was accused of treason and involved in a political scandal that … READ MORE

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  • Mangin, Charles

    By Julie d'Andurain

    Charles Mangin was a very important French general during the First World War. With his concept “''La Force Noire” ''(“Black Forces”), which he published in a book with the same title, he … READ MORE

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  • Mare, André

    By Laurence Graffin

    André Mare was an artist close to the avant-garde movement and was called to service on 2 August 1914. He was involved in the first “camouflage” operations in official history, alongside … READ MORE

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  • Marie Adelheid, Grand-Duchess of Luxembourg

    By Josiane Weber

    Marie Adelheid reigned from 1912 to 1919 as the Grand-Duchess of Luxembourg. Because of her friendly attitude towards the German occupying forces during World War I, the Luxembourgers and Allies … READ MORE

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  • Marinegebiet

    By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

    The ''Marinegebiet'' on the Belgian coast was the Imperial German Navy’s base for attritional warfare against Entente shipping in the North Sea. The resulting occupation regime was particularly … READ MORE

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  • Marne, Battles of the

    By Erwan Le Gall

    The battles of the Marne were two battles during the First World War. The first took place in September 1914, and the second in the summer of 1918. Both battles were key moments in the First World … READ MORE

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  • Marraines de Guerre

    By Clémentine Vidal-Naquet

    The institution of wartime pen pals to assist isolated soldiers who were unable to receive mail from their loved ones was made official in 1915. The system, which paired up lonely soldiers with a … READ MORE

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  • Masculinities

    By Sonja Levsen

    The First World War represents the apex of the ideal of the male warrior hero. Between 1914 and 1918, both the soldiers themselves and combatant societies relied upon gendered language to make sense … READ MORE

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  • Mata Hari

    By Marianne Walle

    Mata Hari was a famous Dutch female dancer, who spied in France for the German intelligence during the war. Arrested by the French, she was condemned to death and executed in October … READ MORE

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  • Mata Hari

    By Marianne Walle

    Mata Hari was a famous Dutch female dancer, who spied in France for the German intelligence during the war. Arrested by the French, she was condemned to death and executed in October … READ MORE

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  • Matos, Norton de

    By Sérgio Neto

    Norton de Matos was minister of war during the first two years of Portuguese participation in the conflict (1916-1917). He was the main organizer of the Expeditionary Corps that fought on the Western … READ MORE

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  • Max, Adolphe

    By Laurence van Ypersele

    Adolphe Max, the mayor of Brussels, was known for his peaceful resistance against the Germans and his resulting jail-time. He was considered by the Belgian public as a hero of the Great … READ MORE

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  • Max Aitken, Lord Beaverbrook

    By Geoffrey Hayes

    This article offers a brief survey of the Canadian-born newspaper baron, Max Aitken, later known as Lord Beaverbrook, and his role in World War I. In 1916, Aitken created the Canadian War Records … READ MORE

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  • Medals and Decorations

    By Sofya Anisimova

    The Great War unfolded on multiple fronts and saw millions of men and women called up to serve in the armed forces. To recognise their military service as well as civilian efforts in wartime, … READ MORE

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  • Mediterranean Theater, Naval Operations

    By Paul G. Halpern

    The real naval war in the Mediterranean turned out to be a struggle against German and Austrian submarines and not a classic battle between major … READ MORE

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  • Mémorial de Verdun

    By Gerd Krumeich

    The Mémorial de Verdun is a museum built in the centre of the 1916 battlefield, on the site of the railway station of Fleury-devant-Douaumont, a village which was totally destroyed during the … READ MORE

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  • Mémorial Interallié

    By Karla Vanraepenbusch

    The inter-allied memorial commemorates the First World War and the fallen, as well as the wartime cooperation between the Allies. Its inter-allied character and its scale make this memorial one of a … READ MORE

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  • Mercier, Désiré Joseph

    By Luc Courtois

    After his pastoral letter ''Patriotisme et endurance'', which had a worldwide impact, the Cardinal Archbishop of Mechlin, Désiré Mercier, was seen both in Belgium and abroad as the incarnation of … READ MORE

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  • Mesopotamia, British Mandate for

    By Burcu Kurt

    British mandate Mesopotamia marks the beginning of the formation of modern Iraq. The mandate period terminated when Iraq was accepted as a member of the League of Nations as an independent state on 3 … READ MORE

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  • Militarized Workers (Italy)

    By Martina Salvante

    In 1915 the Italian government created an agency called ''Mobilitazione Industriale'' (Industrial Mobilisation) to manage economic activities and labour relations in wartime. The MI attempted to … READ MORE

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  • Military Board of Allied Supply

    By Ian M. Brown

    The Military Board of Allied Supply, formed in mid-1918, attempted to centralize oversight of allied lines of communication in Europe and promote more efficient use of their limited … READ MORE

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  • Military Justice (Switzerland)

    By Sebastian Steiner

    In neutral Switzerland, the executive powers were strengthened more than in some belligerent countries. In a state of emergency, the military justice system played a crucial role; it not only acted … READ MORE

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  • Military Volunteers (Italy)

    By Sante Lesti

    The history of the Italian military volunteers concerns not only the roughly 10,000 men who chose to fight without (or before) being drafted, but also the approximately 6,000 Italians who served in … READ MORE

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  • Millerand, Alexandre

    By Daniel Mollenhauer

    Between 1890 and 1925, Alexandre Millerand was one of France’s leading politicians. From August 1914 to September 1915, he served as war minister in the first ''Union sacrée'' government. In 1920, … READ MORE

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  • Mine Warfare

    By Nicholas Murray

    Mine warfare or mining are the terms used to describe the digging of tunnels under the enemy’s line in order to place explosives to destroy a key location, to prevent an enemy from digging tunnels, … READ MORE

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  • Mons

    By Guillaume Blondeau

    The city of Mons took on great symbolic importance during the Great War. In both August 1914 and November 1918, the region was the scene of clashes between Commonwealth troops and German soldiers. … READ MORE

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  • Monte Grappa, Battle of

    By Francesco Cutolo

    After the battle of Caporetto, the Austro-German army launched several attacks against Mount Grappa to break through the Italian line. The battle was fought in two phases: between 13 and 26 November, … READ MORE

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  • Morel, Edmund Dene

    By Christy Jo Snider

    E. D. Morel was one of the earliest critics of the secret diplomacy and alliance system that led to the start of the Great War. Imprisoned during the war by the British government for his writings, … READ MORE

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  • Moroccan Crises 1905-1911

    By Jean-Marc Delaunay

    The two Moroccan crises represent the product of “rapacious joint imperialism.” Morocco could not escape the ambitions of its immediate neighbours, Spain and France, who secretly plotted to … READ MORE

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  • Murray, Archibald James, Sir

    By Justin Fantauzzo

    Sir Archibald James Murray was Chief of the Imperial General Staff from September 1915 to December 1915 and Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force from March 1916 to June … READ MORE

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  • Music

    By Akeo Okada

    The First World War fundamentally changed the course of 20th century music. The era of late Romanticism, Symbolism and Expressionism had ended, the music culture of the European high … READ MORE

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  • Mussolini, Benito

    By Brian R. Sullivan

    Italian Socialist Benito Mussolini envisioned war as the prerequisite for revolution. He helped push Italy into World War I. After combat service and medical discharge in 1917, he demanded war until … READ MORE

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  • Nash, Paul

    By Paul Gough

    Paul Nash was a British painter who served as an infantry officer and an official war artist during the First World War. His paintings and prints depicted the dystopian face of modern warfare etched … READ MORE

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  • Naval Race between Germany and Great Britain, 1898-1912

    By Dirk Bönker

    The Anglo-German naval race was the most spectacular strand of the general maritime arms build-up before World War I. Often, albeit misleadingly, described as both the first and the prototypical arms … READ MORE

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  • Naval Warfare (Italy)

    By Fabio De Ninno

    Italy’s war at sea reflected the more general trends of the naval warfare in the Great War: a stalemate that turned into a war of naval attrition. Only after harsh losses to national shipping and … READ MORE

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  • Netherlands Overseas Trust (NOT)

    By Samuël Kruizinga

    During the First World War, the Netherlands Oversea Trust Company acted as a clearing house for imported contraband goods. Although the Dutch government viewed most of the company’s actions as … READ MORE

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  • Neutrality

    By Samuël Kruizinga

    During the 19th century, neutrality evolved into a set of legal and political tools designed to limit the impact of wars on the international system. This form of neutrality did not … READ MORE

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  • Nevinson, C. R. W. (Christopher Richard Wynne)

    By Kevin Hogg

    C. R. W. Nevinson was a British painter who served as an official war artist in World War I. His paintings depicted soldiers suffering and dying on the battlefield. His work was well-received, … READ MORE

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  • Nitti, Francesco Saverio

    By Pierluigi Pironti

    Francesco Nitti was minister of the Treasury in the Orlando Cabinet after the defeat of Caporetto in 1917 and prime minister of Italy in 1919. During his mandate he signed the treaty of … READ MORE

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  • Nivelle, Robert Georges

    By Denis Rolland

    Born in a Protestant family with an English mother, Robert Nivelle studied at the Polytechnique and Military Academy of Artillery. In 1914, he became a colonel and in 1916 lieutenant general and … READ MORE

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  • Oberstenaffäre

    By Sebastian Steiner

    The so-called “''Oberstenaffäre''” (colonel’s affair) was a political scandal in Switzerland which erupted after details of a close cooperation between Swiss, German, and Austro-Hungarian … READ MORE

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  • Occupation of Luxembourg

    By Richard Seiwerath

    The violation of Luxembourg’s neutrality started with the invasion on 1 August 1914, with the real occupation beginning on 2 August and lasting until 21 November 1918 when the first Allied troops … READ MORE

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  • Ojetti, Ugo

    By Selena Daly

    Ugo Ojetti was a journalist who, during the war, was tasked with the protection of monuments and artworks in the Italian-occupied territories. He was also instrumental in establishing and managing … READ MORE

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  • Oltener Aktionskomitee

    By Bernard Degen

    The ''Oltener Aktionskomitee'' was elected in February 1918 by the committee of the Swiss Federation of Trade Unions (''Schweizerischer Gewerkschaftsbund'', SGB), the executive board of the Social … READ MORE

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  • Olympic Games 1920

    By Karla Vanraepenbusch

    The 1920 Olympic Games in Antwerp, Belgium were the first instalment of the Games since before the war. The planned 1916 Games awarded to Berlin had been … READ MORE

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  • Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele

    By Spencer Di Scala

    A renowned jurist with lasting influence, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando served as justice and interior minister between 1916 and 1917, implementing liberal policies despite strong opposition. As prime … READ MORE

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  • Orpen, William

    By Donal Maguire

    William Orpen, portraitist and subject painter, born in Dublin, was one of the most successful artists of his generation. He enlisted in the British army in December 1915 and was appointed an … READ MORE

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  • Orphans (Italy)

    By Giuseppe Ferraro

    This article focuses on the efforts of the Italian government and certain institutions to care for the high numbers of war orphans in the country. In addition to a brief reconstruction of the … READ MORE

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  • Owen, Wilfred

    By Jane Potter

    Wilfred Owen was a poet and soldier who wrote some of the most memorable poems of the First World War. His theme of "the pity of war" continues to influence the cultural memory of 1914-18 and to … READ MORE

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  • Painlevé, Paul

    By Anne-Laure Anizan

    Paul Painlevé was a prominent French political leader from 1914-1917. He was the head of the Inventions Committee in charge of defining modern warfare. In 1917, at the turning point of the war, he … READ MORE

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  • Pais, Sidónio

    By Sérgio Neto

    The army major and university teacher Sidónio Pais served as the Portuguese minister (ambassador) in Berlin between August 1912 and March 1916. In December 1917, after a military coup, Pais became … READ MORE

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  • Pals Battalions

    By Peter Simkins

    The raising of the Pals battalions added considerable impetus to voluntary recruiting for the British army in the autumn of 1914 by combining patriotism and local loyalties, but subsequent … READ MORE

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  • Paris Guns

    By Christophe Dutrône

    Paris Guns refer to the German long-range guns that fired intermittently on Paris in 1918. A prodigy of the ballistic technology designed to terrorize the Parisian population, these weapons – also … READ MORE

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  • Patriotic Distance

    By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

    Civilians under military occupation in World War One found their existences severely circumscribed, but they exercised agency – not through large-scale, decisive actions, but through small-scale … READ MORE

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  • Pearse, Patrick

    By Joost Augusteijn

    Patrick Pearse was one of the leaders of the 1916 Easter Rising in which the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB), an extremely nationalist organization, attempted to establish an independent Ireland … READ MORE

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  • Pétain, Philippe

    By Olivier Cosson

    A theorist of infantry tactics in 1914, the First World War offered Colonel Pétain a bright career progression. He gained popularity during the Battle of Verdun (1916) and the French army mutinies … READ MORE

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  • Petit, Gabrielle

    By Sophie De Schaepdrijver

    Gabrielle Petit was a secret intelligence agent working for the British General Headquarters (GHQ) in occupied Belgium. She collected information on the German Sixth Army in the Tournai-Lille area. … READ MORE

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  • Petroleum

    By Oliver Gliech

    In World War I, the mobility of troops was of major strategic importance. New transportation means like trucks, as well as war planes, submarines and tanks, which began to revolutionize warfare … READ MORE

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  • Piave, Battles of

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    The two battles of the River Piave were fought between 10 November and 25 December 1917, and 15-23 June 1918, respectively. The Austro-Hungarian army, supported by German units, tried to bring about … READ MORE

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  • Picasso, Pablo

    By Annette Becker

    A citizen of neutral Spain, Pablo Picasso did not fight in the war, but his avant-garde artwork accompanied war culture right up to its use in … READ MORE

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  • Pirenne, Henri

    By Geneviève Warland

    Accused of refusing to collaborate with the German authorities, the Belgian historian Henri Pirenne was deported to Germany in 1916. His captivity led him to reconsider his view on German historical … READ MORE

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  • Poincaré, Raymond

    By Anne-Laure Anizan

    Raymond Poincaré, the president of the French Republic, asserted his authority as early as 1914, in a manner contrary to institutional practices that had prevailed since 1877. After his August 1914 … READ MORE

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  • Pope Benedict XV

    By John Pollard

    Much of the reign of Pope Benedict XV was dominated by the First World War. Pope Benedict deplored this war and thus, together with his Secretary of State, he tried to bring an end to it through … READ MORE

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  • Poppy

    By Matthew Leonard

    To many, the remembrance poppy is the defining symbol of the First World War, embodying loss of innocence and loss of life. Its more potent cousin, the opium poppy, ties the flower to conflicts … READ MORE

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  • Portuguese Expeditionary Corps

    By Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses

    The Portuguese Expeditionary Corps was the most important Portuguese military contribution to the First World War. Its troops began to arrive in France in February 1917 but it soon developed a … READ MORE

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  • Portuguese India

    By Célia Reis

    Although not directly involved in military operations, Portuguese India was linked to World War I through the capture of German and Austrian ships and the imprisonment of their crewmen. This period … READ MORE

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  • Portuguese Macau

    By Célia Reis

    During World War One, Macau's main problem was its relationship with China. This stemmed from the consequences of its internal tensions and the lack of recognition of the Portuguese borders. However, … READ MORE

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  • Portuguese Timor

    By Célia Reis

    The Portuguese territory of Timor was affected by the war mainly because of its proximity to the Dutch colony, the Dutch East Indies. Furthermore, without lines of transportation and communication, … READ MORE

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  • Post-war Repression

    By Xavier Rousseaux

    After fifty months of German occupation, a minority of French, and the majority of 7 million Belgians, experienced a new and massive process of retribution. A comparative study of these retribution … READ MORE

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  • Practice of Sports

    By Ansgar Molzberger

    During World War I, sport competitions became very popular amongst the soldiers of the Central Powers and the Allies. Especially on the Western Front, the transition of the war into a battle of … READ MORE

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  • Pre-war Socialist Pacifism

    By Elisa Marcobelli

    The Socialists’ opposition to war in France, Germany and Italy during the period of the Second International (1889-1914) was contradictory. They tried to combine internationalism, antiwar … READ MORE

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  • Prostitution

    By Journey Steward

    Prostitution was considered among the most important societal problems facing civilian-military authorities in belligerent countries during World War I. Despite growing military control of the … READ MORE

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  • Raemaekers, Louis

    By Ariane de Ranitz

    During the First World War, Dutch editorial cartoonist Louis Raemaekers was a fierce critic of the German invasion of Belgium and France. He played a key role in Allied propaganda with his … READ MORE

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  • Rape

    By Antoine Rivière

    Although rape was not usually systematic, it occurred frequently on all fronts during the First World War, during both invasion and occupation periods. It was often used in propaganda to discredit … READ MORE

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  • Rear Area on the Western Front

    By Larissa Wegner

    The rear area was the space behind the front, linking the operational zone with the home territory. While this area constituted a place of calm and recreation for soldiers returning from front duty, … READ MORE

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  • Reconnaissance and Observation

    By Charles Dusch

    Reconnaissance was aviation’s most important mission in the Great War. When war began, aircraft only performed observation and reconnaissance. The speed of intelligence gathered by aircraft changed … READ MORE

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  • Refugees (Belgium)

    By Michaël Amara

    In Belgium, the outbreak of the First World War and subsequent German invasion caused massive population movements. Hundreds of thousands of Belgian refugees fled the country to seek asylum in the … READ MORE

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  • Refugees (France)

    By Philippe Nivet

    During World War I, about 2 million French citizens had to leave their homes, due to orders from the French military and administrative authorities, the German invasion, German shellings, or … READ MORE

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  • Remembrance day: 11 November 1922-Today (France)

    By Rémi Dalisson

    As early as 1915, France considered celebrating those who died for the nation. After four years of debate among political parties and veterans, 11 November became a national holiday in 1922. From the … READ MORE

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  • Renascença Portuguesa

    By Eliana Brites Rosa

    The ''Renascença Portuguesa'' (1912-1932) was an important cultural movement during the republican regime (1910-1926) in Portugal. This intellectual group was founded in Porto, in the northern part … READ MORE

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  • Resistance (Belgium and France)

    By Emmanuel Debruyne

    In occupied Belgium and France, citizens opposed the German army with organized but non-violent resistance. They created networks dedicated to military intelligence gathering, escape lines, … READ MORE

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  • Ribot, Alexandre Félix Joseph

    By Daniel Mollenhauer

    Alexandre Ribot belonged to the French political elite for more than forty years. During the war, he was finance minister from 1914 to 1917 and prime minister (''Président du Conseil'') from March … READ MORE

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  • Rifles

    By Dieter Storz

    The rifle was by far the most common weapon used in the world war. When the major powers entered the conflict, they possessed around 11 million rifles. During the war, they either manufactured or … READ MORE

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  • Robertson, William Robert

    By David R. Woodward

    William Robert Robertson was the first British soldier to advance from private to field marshal. During the Great War, he initially served as the British Expeditionary Force’s quartermaster-general … READ MORE

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  • Roçadas, José Augusto Alves

    By José Luís Assis

    José Augusto Alves Roçadas led African pacification campaigns and was a colonial governor, as well as the commander of the Portuguese Expeditionary Force and Portuguese Expeditionary … READ MORE

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  • Rolland, Romain

    By Josepha Laroche

    A pacifist writer, Romain Rolland was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1915. During the Great War, he refused to choose one camp over the other and suffered nationalist attacks. In the post … READ MORE

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  • Room 40

    By Steven Czak

    Room 40 was a highly secretive British intelligence organization within the directorate of intelligence of the Admiralty. Its primary task was to intercept and decrypt German wireless and telegraph … READ MORE

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  • Rosado, Tomás Garcia

    By José Luís Assis

    Tomás António Garcia Rosado was a Portuguese expeditionary commander and colonial administrator. He served as commander of the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps during and shortly after World War I. … READ MORE

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  • Rubber

    By Oliver Gliech

    During World War I, motor vehicles took on a key role as transport facilities for troops and equipment. They needed tires made of rubber, which as a result became a raw material of strategic … READ MORE

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  • Ruhleben Internment Camp

    By Mahon Murphy

    The Ruhleben internment camp, situated on the outskirts of Berlin, held British civilian internees from its opening in November 1914 to its closure in November 1918. While the camp suffered from … READ MORE

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  • Ruhr Occupation

    By Conan Fischer

    The 1923-1925 Ruhr occupation by France and Belgium was triggered when Germany defaulted on its reparations obligations. A passive resistance campaign obstructed the invaders but collapsed in … READ MORE

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  • Russell, Bertrand

    By Alisa Miller

    This article examines how the outbreak of war in 1914 established Bertrand Russell’s reputation as social critic with an international audience. It considers his major writings on a range of … READ MORE

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  • Russian Expeditionary Force

    By Sofya Anisimova and Gwendal Piégais

    The Russian Expeditionary Force in France and in Macedonia (“Brigades russes en France et en Macédoine” in French and “Russkij èkspedicionnyj korpus” in Russian) was an ensemble of four … READ MORE

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  • Russian Expeditionary Force

    By Sofya Anisimova and Gwendal Piégais

    The Russian Expeditionary Force in France and in Macedonia (“Brigades russes en France et en Macédoine” in French and “Russkij èkspedicionnyj korpus” in Russian) was an ensemble of four … READ MORE

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  • Salandra, Antonio

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    Antonio Salandra was an important Italian politician in the early 20th century. When the Great War broke out, he was prime minister of Italy and had a decisive yet controversial role in … READ MORE

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  • Sassoon, Siegfried Loraine

    By Scott Ortolano

    Siegfried Lorraine Sassoon was a British soldier, poet and novelist. His work bitterly exposes the horrors of the First World War and offers a soldier’s account of the … READ MORE

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  • Schweizerischer Vaterländischer Verband

    By Dorothe Zimmermann

    The Swiss Patriotic Federation (''Schweizerischer Vaterländischer Verband'', or SVV) was a private, right-wing association which was set up between 1919 and 1948 in response to the nationwide … READ MORE

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  • Sea Power

    By Andrew Lambert

    Much attention has been accorded to the massive scale of military operations in the European theatre. However, sea power, which determined the control of global communications and was the key to … READ MORE

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  • Sembat, Marcel

    By Daniel Mollenhauer

    Marcel Sembat was one of the leading French socialists of the pre-war years. As minister of public works, he represented the socialist party in the ''union sacrée'' government formed at the end of … READ MORE

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  • Shaw, George Bernard

    By Adam R. McKee

    An Irish-born writer and critic, best known as a playwright, George Bernard Shaw was an ardent opponent to World War I. Already in his fifties at the start of the war, Shaw was outspoken in his … READ MORE

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  • Shell

    By Harold Allen Skinner Jr.

    A shell is a streamlined steel metal projectile, filled with a variety of explosive and chemical payloads, and detonated by an impact or time fuse. Delivered by complex systems to the point of … READ MORE

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  • Shells Crisis of 1915

    By Hew Strachan

    In 1914, quick-firing field artillery could fire more shells than domestic industries, geared to peacetime consumption levels, could supply. Armies, although recognizing the dangers, had … READ MORE

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  • Smoking and Cigarette Consumption

    By Michael Reeve

    During the First World War, governments, civilians and soldiers alike prized smoking for its morale-boosting qualities, in addition to a medicinal effect following combat and periods of intense … READ MORE

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  • Social Darwinism

    By Kathi Badertscher

    Social Darwinism was an intellectual movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries that merged Charles Darwin’s biological theory of evolution with theories about human … READ MORE

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  • Société Suisse de Surveillance Economique (SSS)

    By Florian Weber

    The privately organized SSS existed from October 1915 to July 1919 to prevent Swiss companies from forwarding goods and raw materials produced by the Entente to the Central Powers. The SSS grew from … READ MORE

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  • Soldiers' Equipment

    By Dieter Storz

    The soldier’s personal equipment had a dual purpose: it was intended to enable him to carry out his military duties, and it was supposed to guarantee, independent of stationary installations, the … READ MORE

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  • Soldiers' Humour

    By Alexander Watson

    Soldier’s humour, as expressed in jokes, songs and slang, reflected a dark, ironic and sardonic mind-set common among combatants. It usually contributed to individual psychological resilience, … READ MORE

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  • Soldiers on Leave

    By Emmanuelle Cronier

    Starting in 1915, periods of leave known as "permissionnaires" played a vital role in supporting the morale of troops, allowing fighters to rest, and letting some families come together. These … READ MORE

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  • Solvay, Ernest

    By Kenneth Bertrams

    Industrial tycoon and philanthropist Ernest Solvay transformed the chemical industry by developing a groundbreaking process for the manufacturing of soda ash. At the outbreak of World War I, he … READ MORE

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  • Somme, Battles of

    By William Philpott

    There was fighting in the Picardy region of France throughout the war. The 1916 Battle of the Somme is the most well known engagement in this region, notorious for its heavy casualties. The British … READ MORE

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  • Sonnino, Sidney

    By Paola Carlucci

    Sidney Sonnino was the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs during World War I. He negotiated the Treaty of London, defining the terms with which Italy would enter into the war alongside the Triple … READ MORE

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  • Sousa Lopes, Adriano de

    By Carlos Silveira

    The painter Adriano de Sousa Lopes was the only official Portuguese war artist in the Great War, stationed on the Western Front. Like most of his international colleagues, he produced remarkable … READ MORE

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  • Spanish Intelligence

    By Carolina García Sanz

    Spain became a centre of international espionage in 1914. Its strategic location in terms of the Anglo-French trade soon attracted German attention. The Germans waged an economic and propaganda war … READ MORE

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  • Spanish Neutrality

    By Carolina García Sanz

    The Spanish government maintained a benevolent neutrality policy towards the Entente Powers during the First World War. Liberal and Conservative cabinets decided it was the only position consistent … READ MORE

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  • Spy Fever 1914

    By Sebastian Bischoff

    Spy Fever describes an anxiety or paranoia that enemy spies might be active within one’s own nation. The phenomenon was widespread in all theatres of World War I from at least August of 1914. Most … READ MORE

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  • Steel Helmet

    By Nathan Watanabe

    The steel helmet was invented and fielded in response to increased lethality on the battlefield due to advances in artillery and fragmentation. World War I witnessed the first wide-spread use of the … READ MORE

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  • Stereotypes

    By Vanessa Ther

    This article summarises the main wartime stereotypes that defined war propaganda in Germany, France, Great Britain, the USA and Russia. It focuses less on particular details of each national enemy … READ MORE

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  • Stockholm Conference

    By Elisa Marcobelli

    The Stockholm Conference, or Third Zimmerwald Conference, was held from 5 to 12 September 1917. The subject of the discussions was the way in which a certain part of the socialist movement conceived … READ MORE

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  • Stormtrooper

    By Ralf Raths

    Storm troopers were soldiers in specialized assault units, which emerged in the German army during the First World … READ MORE

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  • Submarines and Submarine Warfare

    By Mark D. Karau

    During the First World War the German government made extensive use of submarines, initially against warships and then, as the war progressed, most heavily against merchant shipping. However, the … READ MORE

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  • Suffragettes

    By William Murphy

    This article briefly introduces the suffragettes and their campaign, reflecting on their pre-war methods and the divisions that emerged within the movement. It then discusses their varied, sometimes … READ MORE

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  • Supreme War Council

    By Elizabeth Greenhalgh

    The Supreme War Council was an Allied administrative organisation, created by the Entente governments in November 1917 to coordinate their military action. Its most significant achievement was to … READ MORE

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  • Tamagnini de Abreu e Silva, Fernando

    By José Luís Assis

    Fernando Tamagnini de Abreu e Silva was a Portuguese general during World War I. He organized the Instruction Division in Tancos and served as commander of the Portuguese Expeditionary … READ MORE

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  • Tanks and Tank Warfare

    By Michael David Kennedy

    World War I introduced new technologies and doctrine in a quest to overcome the tactical stalemate of the trenches. The first tanks had great potential that would be capitalized upon during the next … READ MORE

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  • Theater at the Front

    By Emmanuelle Loubat

    Whether on the Western or Eastern Front, by German, French, British, Canadian, American and other armies, shows were regularly organized on the front lines and at base camps during the Great War. … READ MORE

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  • The Battle of the Somme (film)

    By Nicholas Hiley

    ''Battle of the Somme'' was a feature-length British documentary film, released in August 1916 while the fighting on the Somme was still in progress. Filmed by commercial cameramen under military … READ MORE

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  • The Song of Craonne

    By Guy Marival

    The song now known as the "Chanson de Craonne" ("Song of Craonne") remains one of the most well-known First World War songs in France. Several months before the mutinies in spring 1917, its text … READ MORE

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  • Thiepval Memorial

    By Glyn Prysor

    The Thiepval Memorial commemorates “the Missing of the Somme”: more than 72,000 British and South African soldiers who were killed in the region between 1915 and 1918 but have no known grave. … READ MORE

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  • Thomas, Albert

    By Daniel Mollenhauer

    Albert Thomas was a French socialist who served as minister of armaments in the French government during the war. In the postwar period, he became the first director of the International Labour … READ MORE

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  • Tirailleurs Sénégalais

    By Richard Fogarty

    The ''tirailleurs sénégalais'' (Senegalese riflemen) figured prominently among the many indigenous peoples who served in the French army during the First World War. By 1918, France had recruited … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Rome

    By Martina Salvante

    At the end of the Great War, many countries determined that they would bury an anonymous corpse to symbolize all those who died on the battlefields. In Italy, the ceremony for the entombment of the … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Townshend, Charles Vere Ferrers, Sir

    By Justin Fantauzzo

    Sir Charles Vere Ferrers Townshend commanded the 6th (Poona) Division in Mesopotamia between April 1915 and April … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Toynbee, Arnold J.

    By Laura Di Fiore

    During World War I, Arnold J. Toynbee, as a member of the Political Intelligence Department, was charged with preparing analyses on the Middle East for the Paris Peace Conference. The global war was … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Trench Art

    By Paul Cornish

    "Trench Art" is a genre of folk art comprised of items created in wartime, or from war materiel. It may be made by servicemen and women or by civilians, and is particularly associated with the First … READ MORE

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  • Trentino

    By Nicola Fontana and Mirko Saltori

    Trentino is an Italian-speaking region which was the southernmost part of the Tyrol. With Italy’s entry into the war, it found itself in the front area. After the war it was annexed to the Kingdom … READ MORE

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  • Trépont, Félix

    By James E. Connolly

    As prefect of the ''département ''of the Nord at the outbreak of war, Félix Trépont encouraged the defence of Lille during the invasion, eventually oversaw the evacuation of men and material, and … READ MORE

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  • Troelstra, Pieter Jelles

    By Paul Moeyes

    Troelstra was a charismatic socialist leader who overestimated his influence and called for a socialist revolution in November 1918. His call was ignored and after suffering a nervous breakdown, he … READ MORE

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  • Union fédérale (UF)

    By Chris Millington

    Founded in Lyon in February 1918, the ''Union fédérale'' was the largest veterans’ association in interwar France. It campaigned for the improvement of veterans’ pensions and for the … READ MORE

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  • Union nationale des Combattants (UNC)

    By Chris Millington

    Founded on 11 November 1918 with the support of French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, the ''Union Nationale des Combattants'' was the largest right-wing veterans’ association in interwar … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Union of Democratic Control

    By David Monger

    The Union of Democratic Control was a prominent opposition group in Britain that particularly criticised the operation of British foreign policy and the role of "secret diplomacy". It advocated … READ MORE

    Entry

  • University of Ghent

    By Christine Van Everbroeck

    During the war, the Germans created a Flemish university in Ghent. By doing so, they fulfilled one of the Flemish movement’s principal … READ MORE

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  • Verdun, Site of Memory

    By Elise Julien

    The Franco-German battle of 1916 quickly became emblematic of the entire war to the French, while in Germany it subsequently inspired heroic literature highlighting the collective determination of … READ MORE

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  • Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy

    By Stefano Marcuzzi

    Victor Emmanuel III played an important, if often overlooked part in Italy’s decision to intervene in World War I on the side of the Entente. During the war, he managed to solve two political … READ MORE

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  • Villalobar, Rodrigo de Saavedra y Vinent, Marqués de

    By Emmanuel Debruyne

    Rodrigo de Saavedra y Vinent, Marqués de Villalobar was the diplomatic representative of Spain to Belgium from 1913 to 1926. During the war, his humanitarian activities in occupied Belgium … READ MORE

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  • Vittoria Mutilata

    By Brian R. Sullivan

    Gabriele D’Annunzio’s phrase “mutilated victory” infers that Italy’s wartime sacrifices went unrewarded, but excessive Italian demands and inept diplomacy in Paris provoked French and … READ MORE

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  • Vittorio Veneto, Battle of

    By Francesco Frizzera

    The Battle of Vittorio Veneto was fought between 24 October and 4 November 1918 by the Italian 4th, 8th, 10th and 12th Armies against the Austro-Hungarian … READ MORE

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  • Viviani, René

    By Daniel Mollenhauer

    René Viviani was a leading French politician in the early 20th century. When the war broke out, he was prime minister (''Président du Conseil'') and contributed to the formation of the … READ MORE

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  • Voices in the Storm (journal)

    By Nicole Billeter

    “''Stimmen im Sturm''” was a Swiss cooperative which published nine issues with decidedly Germanophile content. They not only defended the German war effort, but also argued against the French … READ MORE

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  • Vollmachtenregime

    By Oliver Schneider

    During the First World War, the Swiss federal government imposed a state of emergency, which was established to ensure the maintenance of Swiss neutrality, supply and integrity. As the war … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Vorarlberg Referendum

    By Wolfgang Weber

    The latter Austrian ''Land'' Vorarlberg saw the rise of a grass root movement for a political union with Switzerland between autumn 1918 and spring 1919. These ideas never materialized, however, as … READ MORE

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  • War and Comics (Italy)

    By Roberto Bianchi

    Comics played a very important role in the total mobilization in Italy. Firstly in the cities and then in the trenches, they were a new propaganda tool and explanation of the war for children and … READ MORE

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  • War Bonds

    By Steffen Bruendel

    The governments of all belligerent countries issued special loans to finance their expenditure after the war began. To mobilize the financial resources of their peoples required concerted war bonds … READ MORE

    Entry

  • War Poetry

    By Jane Potter

    This article examines the concept of war poetry and considers the range of poetic responses generated by the Great War from an international … READ MORE

    Entry

  • War Profiteers

    By François Bouloc

    As a long-lasting industrial war, the Great War led to the realization of considerable profits throughout industrialized countries. Both real and imagined, they structured many wartime facets, from … READ MORE

    Entry

  • War Propaganda Bureau

    By Florian Altenhöner

    The British government set up a War Propaganda Bureau in 1914. It came to be known as Wellington House after its location in Buckingham Gate, London. The organization was the centre of British … READ MORE

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  • War Toys

    By Sonja Levsen

    In the First World War, war toys were regarded as a means to strengthen children’s identification with the war effort. Production and consumption of war toys in 1914 to 1915 reached heights never … READ MORE

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  • War Widows

    By Peggy Bette

    One third of the 9.7 million soldiers killed or declared missing during the Great War left behind a widow. The mourning of these women was conditioned as much by the social conventions practiced … READ MORE

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  • Wilhelmina, Queen of the Netherlands

    By Paul Moeyes

    Queen Wilhelmina was by nature a forceful leader. The First World War showed that she lacked the meekness and patience that the head of a small neutral state … READ MORE

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  • Wireless Telegraphy

    By Heidi J.S. Tworek

    Wireless telegraphy became an integral part of warfare on the ground, in the air, and at sea by 1918. Wireless helped to make the war global, though historians still debate its impact on the course … READ MORE

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  • Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA)

    By Emma Hanna

    The YMCA was a Christian charitable organization that provided a range of rest and recreational facilities for soldiers in Britain and on various fronts during the … READ MORE

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  • Ypres, Battles of

    By Spencer Jones

    The Belgian city of Ypres is synonymous with the First World War. Ypres gave its name to three major battles: First Ypres (19 October - 22 November 1914), Second Ypres (21 April - 25 May 1915) and … READ MORE

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  • Ypres Menin Gate

    By Dominiek Dendooven

    The Menin Gate in Ypres is the best known of the memorials to the missing in the Commonwealth War Graves Commission's care. Designed by architect Sir Reginald Blomfield it is where the Last Post, the … READ MORE

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  • Zeppelin (Airship)

    By Charles Dusch

    Zeppelins heralded the potential of strategic bombing. Although airships were originally used for maritime and army reconnaissance, Germany was first to employ them as a strategic weapon. The German … READ MORE

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  • Zimmerwald Conference

    By Bernard Degen

    Anti-war socialists from ten countries met in Zimmerwald in September 1915. They adopted a manifesto and founded the International Socialist Commission (ISC), with its headquarters in Bern. A … READ MORE

    Entry

  • Züblin-Spiller, Else

    By Elisabeth Joris

    In the context of the Swiss organisation ''Schweizer Verband Soldatenwohl ''Else Spiller initiated facilities for soldiers providing alcohol-free catering (''Soldatenstuben'') and organized social … READ MORE

    Entry
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