Historiography 1918-Today (Switzerland)

By Daniel Marc Segesser

1914-1918 Online

Internal Encyclopedia of the First World War

This text is licensed under Creative Commmons Licence

(Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Germany-CC BY-NC-ND 3.0)

Table of Contents

- 1 Introduction

- 2 A First Wave or a First Generation: Writing About the War from Memory and on the Basis of Publicly Available Sources, 1914 to Early 1930s

- 3 A Second Wave or a Second Generation: From a Focus on Neutrality, Anti-communism and the Military to an Analysis of Social and Economic Conflict in the 1960s and 1970s

- 4 Stamped out Paths and Innovative Moments: A Very Diverging Third Wave or Third Generation in the 1990s and Early 2000s

- 5 Thanks to the Centenary: Switzerland’s Historiography Goes Transnational in a Fourth Wave or a Fourth Generation, 2010 to the Present

- 6 Conclusion

- Notes

- Selected Bibliography

- Citation

Introduction

Already for some time, historians all over the world have claimed that the fragmentation and variety of studies on the First World War have reached a level that “no single person today can master…” and that “this universe of publications is expanding rapidly, with no end in sight”.[1] Looking at the historiography of Switzerland during the First World War, such a statement may seem odd, as up until 2014 this war had often been labelled “Der vergessene Krieg”, the forgotten war.[2] As Maartje Abbenhuis has, however, convincingly argued, a history of total war[3] would not be complete without a history of the involvement of neutral countries.[4] Therefore, it is important also to include a discussion of the historiography on Switzerland in the First World War in such a history, something which has so far not often been done.[5] This is what this contribution tries to do by identifying different phases of historiographical output on Switzerland in the First World War that can be described as waves of analysis and remembrance, or as generations of historical writing.[6]

A First Wave or a First Generation: Writing About the War from Memory and on the Basis of Publicly Available Sources, 1914 to Early 1930s

From 1914 onwards the idea that it was necessary to think about the memory of this great or world war mattered to individuals as much as to governments and the military.[7] Although not at war, Switzerland only slightly differed from other countries in this regard, and even then only by degree. On the one hand the government and the military were eager to give their account of the developments.[8] On the other hand, individuals published their own literary accounts or recollections, amongst them many teachers at secondary or high school level.[9] Together with the Politisches Jahrbuch der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, published until 1917 by Carl Hilty (1833-1909) and his successors,[10] official publications, publicly available sources, and the memory of persons involved formed the first basis on which many in academic research based their accounts of Switzerland’s role during the First World War. Even in 2014, Georg Kreis still used many of these sources for his overview.[11]

In 1917, German diplomats approached the Bernese secondary school teacher Jacob Ruchti (1878-?) and asked him if he was prepared to publish a study on Switzerland in the war as part of a sponsored series on the position of neutral countries in the war.[12] Ruchti agreed and until 1920, with the support of his academic teachers Gustav Tobler (1855-1921) and Philipp Woker (1848-1924), both professors of history at the University of Bern, he prepared a first draft manuscript which, however, took another ten years to be published in two volumes.[13] Although often primarily attributed to its headline author, Jacob Ruchti,[14] the book – in a manner similar to the Carnegie Economic and Social History of the World War[15] – was a product of teamwork mainly by a group of contemporary representatives from different fields, most of whom came from the canton of Bern. It was based on publicly available sources as well as personal recollections and presented a bourgeois perspective on the war.[16] If one compares it with the volumes on the Netherlands within the Carnegie Economic and Social History of the World War[17] it becomes clear that there were many similarities. The studies on the two countries both concentrated on issues of neutrality, agriculture and food supply, public finances, prices and wages, and the cost of living. Ruchti, however, added chapters on interior and foreign policy, linguistic and regional divides, the military, humanitarianism, moments of crisis such as the Oberstenaffäre or the Hoffmann-Grimm Affair, as well as on poetry, music and painting,[18] while the series on the Netherlands included a small volume on the effect of the war on the colonies.[19] Ruchti’s study only contained a few paragraphs on commerce and the manufacturing industries as well as on demographic aspects, in all probability because Julius Wyler (1891-1959) and Traugott Geering (1859-1932) – sponsored by the government – published major studies on these issues in a series on the Swiss economy during the war.[20] That Ruchti did not include issues such as the tourism industry, the impact of the war on the railways or the Swiss banking system was probably due to the fact that the government-sponsored series, in which the studies of Wyler and Geering were published, originally planned to issue volumes on these aspects as well.[21] These volumes, however, never materialized. It is very likely that Ruchti’s volumes – maybe together with the series sponsored by the government – were the “semi-official history of Switzerland at present under preparation”, which “excludes it from this survey [i.e. the Carnegie Economic and Social History of the World War]”[22] mentioned by James Shotwell (1874-1965), the general editor of the Carnegie series. While Geering’s work together with Ruchti’s became formative, that of Wyler and others such as Friedrich Bek on trade relations with Italy,[23] Gustav Frey (1898-1983) on the supply of raw materials,[24] Josef Käppeli (1872-1942) and Max Riesen (1887-1957) on food supply,[25] Max Obrecht (1894-1965) on clearing houses for overseas imports,[26] Rudolf Pfenninger (1902-1987) on trade,[27] Eduard Scheurmann (1897-?) on milk supply,[28] or Heinrich Sieveking (1871-1945) on the Swiss economy during the war in general[29] existed without having a large scale impact on Swiss historiography of the First World War.

From the 1930s onwards academic research almost stopped, while individual aspects of stories such as ”Füsilier Wipf” or ”Gilberte de Courgenay” became part of a collective movement to strengthen national cohesion under the heading Geistige Landesverteidigung.[30] It therefore doesn’t come as a surprise that the article on the First World War in the Historisch-Biographisches Lexikon der Schweiz mainly concentrated on political, military and economic aspects.[31] This was a reflection of the development of research in the 1920s. While issues of supply had dominated in early studies, commerce and industry as well as political aspects and the role of the military became more dominant over time. However, what is also interesting about the article in the Historisch-Biographisches Lexikon der Schweiz – mainly written by French-speaking colonel Fernand Feyler (1863-1931) – is that Ruchti’s work is not mentioned at all, which was due to the fact that the text was completed for the French version published in 1926, but – as it was not amended for the German version – may also be seen as a sign that French-speaking Swiss still did not trust a man who was seen as being too pro-German.[32]

A Second Wave or a Second Generation: From a Focus on Neutrality, Anti-communism and the Military to an Analysis of Social and Economic Conflict in the 1960s and 1970s

In contrast to other countries, Switzerland did not participate in the “European War on Documents” of the interwar period.[33] After the Second World War, however, the country felt the need to justify its policy during that war.[34] In this context, the issue of neutrality became the central focal point. It therefore comes as no surprise that Edgar Bonjour (1898-1991) mainly focused on political, military and humanitarian aspects when dealing with the First World War in volume 2 of his multi-volume history of Swiss neutrality.[35] In this he did not differ much from the focus that Ruchti had taken. The same is true for a publication by Hans Rudolf Kurz (1915-1990) of documents on the military border occupation of the years 1914 to 1918,[36] as well as for various biographies on military leaders published between 1957 and 1975.[37] In 1965, furthermore, with the support of the local government of Zimmerwald, and his political friend and professor of history Walther Hofer (1920-2013), Peter Sager (1925-2006), the head of the Schweizerisches Ostinstitut in Bern, organised a seven day public conference to keep control of the memory of the 1915/1916 conferences in Zimmerwald and Kiental and make it clear that communism was still a major danger.[38]

However, the fact that social and economic history began to dominate the general historiographical trends in the 1960s and 1970s had an impact on the ways in which Swiss historiography dealt with the years 1914 to 1918 as well.[39] The study of social classes, social movements as well as social and economic conflict moved to the centre of research activities. In the case of Switzerland this meant that the Landesstreik, the national general strike of 1918 with its causes and consequences became the major focus. The seminal study in this context was Willi Gautschi’s (1920-2004) Der Landesstreik 1918, published in 1968,[40] which the author followed up with an edition of sources and a volume on Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) in Switzerland.[41] Gautschi challenged the traditional bourgeois view that had been dominant since the end of the First World War, that the Landesstreik was the product of an attempt at revolution by mainly foreign Bolshevik agents. He argued that it was rather the culmination of a long-term conflict between (organised) workers and a bourgeoisie which had seen a boost as a consequence of worsening living conditions during the war. The men of the Oltener Aktionskomitee had not been self-centred muddlers, but men who had tried their best to improve the situation of disadvantaged people. In Switzerland, however, Gautschi concluded, the idea of class struggle was not destined to flourish.[42] Taking different foci, several other authors confirmed Gautschi’s findings in the following years.[43] Furthermore, these years also saw the publication of several biographies on leading actors of the time.[44]

The general trend towards social and economic history produced two further studies by Heinz Ochsenbein and Pierre Luciri on the methods with which belligerents tried to gain control over Swiss trade,[45] and another by Hans-Ulrich Jost which analysed the impact of the radical left in German-speaking Switzerland.[46] A comparison of several general studies on Swiss history published in the 1970s and 1980s shows social and economic factors had become much more important in the historiography on Switzerland during the First World War.[47] Slowly a social and economic perspective began to supersede the traditional narrative with its focus on anti-communist politics, the military and neutrality, although the latter never completely disappeared.

Stamped out Paths and Innovative Moments: A Very Diverging Third Wave or Third Generation in the 1990s and Early 2000s

While from the late 1980s and early 1990s the general trend in historiography on the First World War began to move from social via everyday history towards a paradigm of cultural history,[48] the studies that were published on the topic in Switzerland took a more diverging direction. The issues of neutrality and the military remained an important focus. This was not least a response to a provocation of historian and publicist Niklaus Meienberg (1940-1993), who, in 1987, had published his book Die Welt als Wille und Wahn, in which he wondered to what extent aristocratic airs were compatible with Swiss democracy.[49] Although Meienberg’s handling of the sources was more than dubious, he was able to gain control over the public memory of Ulrich Wille (1848-1925) for some time. Academics reacted rather hesitantly to Meienberg’s book and it finally took more than fifteen years before Hans Rudolf Fuhrer and Paul Meinrad Strässle published an academic study on the controversial figure of Wille.[50] This study was, however, not the first one on a Swiss military leader of the First World War. In 1999 René Zeller had published a study on Emil Sonderegger (1868-1934), the commanding officer in Zurich during the national general strike, and in 2000 Daniel Sprecher had published an even more comprehensive study on the chief of the general staff during the war, Theophil Sprecher von Bernegg (1850-1927).[51] In the same period Max Mittler (1924-2004) presented his study on Switzerland’s neutrality during the First World War, in which he came to the conclusion that it had always been a challenge for the country to uphold its neutrality and that during the war such a policy had even become a challenge for the national cohesion of the country.[52] At around the same time, Hans Rudolf Fuhrer published a comprehensive study on the Swiss army during the First World War and also incorporated some of the findings from earlier studies by Hans Rapold (1920-2018) and Rudolf Jaun on the Swiss general staff and the military generally.[53]

Economic, social and cultural history studies were, however, also (still) present in the 1990s and early 2000s. In 2005 Nicole Billeter published an innovative study on the outlook of writers in exile regarding the war, in which she showed that exile in Switzerland did not necessarily mean freedom of speech and action. Many writers became targets of the propaganda of their own country as well as of opposite side. She also showed how diverse the points of view of exiled writers were.[54] Migration issues were another topic that several authors such as Gérald and Silvia Arlettaz, Thomas Bürgisser, Bettina Durrer, Uriel Gast and Roland Gysin took up.[55] In his general history on Switzerland, François Walter upheld the importance of a social and economic perspective on the war, but he also emphasized the importance of the cultural divide between the different language groups in the country.[56] In 2006 Christian Koller stressed the importance of looking at Switzerland’s memory of the First World War, as it had been a central element of memory politics during the Geistige Landesverteidigung in the 1930s and 1940s. Looking at the war from below – something that academic research had not done at that time – political and military authorities tried to create national cohesion, which did not tolerate undesirable elements within the collective memory of the country.[57] In 2008, finally, Roman Rossfeld and Tobias Straumann published a seminal study on different industrial segments. They built on Geering’s study from 1928 and extended its findings considerably. Most importantly they defined five crucial periods in Switzerland’s history of the First World War: 1) the crisis at the beginning of the war in 1914, 2) a boom phase in 1915-1916, 3) a collapse after 1916 as a consequence of the intensification of economic warfare by the belligerents with serious consequences for the country, 4) the immediate aftermath of the war with a quick recovery of exports, but also rising prices, and 5) the crisis after the war in the years 1921-1923 with major inflation and high costs for restructuring the economy.[58]

Thanks to the Centenary: Switzerland’s Historiography Goes Transnational in a Fourth Wave or a Fourth Generation, 2010 to the Present

In 2011 Konrad Kuhn and Béatrice Ziegler published an article in the journal Traverse, in which they regretted that Ruchti’s narrative of the war, focusing on linguistic divides, neutrality and the importance of the army, had still remained dominant, while regional, everyday, comparative, cultural and gender history had so far not received the attention they deserved. They therefore called for a renewed effort in looking at sources at a regional and local level, in broadening the perspectives in research, in re-evaluating existing sources as well as literature and putting the Swiss experience into a comparative perspective.[59] To some extent the two preached to the converted, as two research projects underway at the time show.[60] After a 2013 panel at the Schweizerische Geschichtstage in Fribourg,[61] several articles were published in the same year in the Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Geschichte.[62] All of them followed what Jay Winter has called the “transnational generation” of First World War scholarship, which is shaped by a global outlook and a tendency to write about more than just the fields that had been common so far.[63] In 2014, Georg Kreis published an overview on the existing research at the time, showing how far Switzerland wanted to stay apart from the war, while the country was at the same time closely integrated into the European and global network and dependent on other countries, many of whom were or became belligerents in the years 1914 to 1918.[64] Also in 2014, Roman Rossfeld, Thomas Buomberger and Patrick Kury published a highly illustrated book with an extensive bibliography to accompany an exhibition visited by about 100,000 people,[65] and Jakob Tanner explicitly called for a transnational history of Switzerland in the First World War.[66] Again in 2014, Switzerland gained a separate section in 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, which has since made it possible to present the results of the existing research on the country, often published in German and/or French, in the English language.[67]

The following years saw a large wave of new publications, many of them dealing in a transnational perspective with topics that had so far been under-researched such as: propaganda,[68] migration,[69] military justice,[70] the Vollmachtenregime,[71] Swiss humanitarianism[72], gender issues,[73] the impact of the war on Switzerland’s role in a more multilateral world,[74] and the Spanish flu.[75] There were also some studies in military history that broke with the national contraction of the past and tried to integrate Switzerland’s military experience into a larger European and partially global context.[76] Furthermore, several authors published studies on developments in Switzerland’s regions.[77] Social and economic issues were also a topic which saw renewed attention,[78] and in parts tried to link their research to the new field of the environmental history of the First World War,[79] which in turn saw some interesting and partially interdisciplinary studies dealing with natural phenomena and living conditions in the war in the alps in a transnational perspective.[80]

Some studies made it their aim to explicitly link Swiss experiences with the world. A very good example is the study by Bernard Degen and Julia Richers on the conferences in Zimmerwald and Kiental, to which they gave the revealing subtitle “Global history in the village”.[81] In the same year, Roman Rossfeld published a seminal article in which he linked economic developments in Switzerland to those in other countries and showed that Swiss companies produced munitions for all belligerents, while at the same time the military leadership in the country was desperately trying to obtain such goods for its own armed forces. With this article, Rossfeld not only showed that transnational interdependencies existed in the case of Switzerland, he put into perspective the traditional view of Switzerland as a country devoted to humanitarian diplomacy.[82] In a similar manner, Daniel Marc Segesser published a series of articles on Switzerland’s interdependency with the world,[83] and, in 2021, together with Wolfgang Weber and Sacha Zala, issued a collection of sources which tries to link the Vorarlberg question to ongoing international debates on the issue of self-determination.[84] Together with Daniel Krämer and Christian Pfister, he also edited a volume on the importance of conflicts over food, energy and resources in Switzerland during the war, which extends the existing research on the social and economic impact of the war by putting it into a transnational perspective and linking it to aspects that had so far been neglected like climate, weather and agriculture.[85]

Towards the end of the centenary, one of the topics that had been part of the old narrative mentioned by Kuhn and Ziegler, the Landesstreik, again became an object of interest. This time, however, the perspective was different. A research project took on the issues of gender, memory and emotional history linked to the Landesstreik.[86] Its researchers integrated their initial findings into the comprehensive edited volume that Roman Rossfeld, Christian Koller and Brigitte Studer published in 2018, again with a substantial bibliography. The focus of this book went, however, beyond the scope of the research project and included issues such as social misery and distribution conflicts, political inclusion and exclusion, class and gender, regional differences, and narratives and memory.[87] In the same year the journal Traverse published a special issue on the topic, which linked the Landesstreik to a broader history of strikes in Switzerland and focused more on aspects that were not so much in the focus of the study published by Rossfeld, Koller and Studer, such as the development of historiography and the Franco- or Italophone parts of the country.[88] Further studies with a strong regional focus on the Landesstreik have been carried out by Jean-Claude Rennwald and Adrian Zimmermann, as well as Julien Steiner.[89] Still, older narratives focusing on the importance of political motives have not completely disappeared, as an article by Rudolf Jaun and Tobias Straumann shows.[90] What is certainly important in this context is to keep in mind that the Landesstreik needs to be considered simultaneously in the context of the end of the war in other countries and in the context of the history of strikes in Switzerland generally.[91]

Conclusion

For a long time the historiography of Switzerland’s involvement in the First World War was dominated by a narrative developed during and in the first decade after the war. Linguistic divides, neutrality and the role of the army, which had allegedly protected the country during and in the immediate aftermath of the war during the Landesstreik: these were the central aspects of the narrative cultivated by bourgeois-dominated authorities, academics and teachers, who based their contributions on publicly available sources and the memories of persons involved. After the Second World War the issues of neutrality, anti-communism and the importance of the army continued to dominate, until a new generation of research shaped by a general trend towards economic and social history began to challenge this, not least thanks to the access to archival sources. While, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the general trend in historiography on the First World War began to move from social via everyday history towards a paradigm of cultural history, the development in Switzerland took a more divergent turn. Neutrality and the army remained important topics, but new aspects such as writers in exile, migration and the memory of the war emerged. Nevertheless, it was only with the arrival of the centenary that the idea of the forgotten war was finally overcome. The fourth wave of research, which emerged during the centenary, was largely shaped by a generation of historians that took a more transnational perspective.

Daniel Marc Segesser, Universität Bern

Section Editor : Roman Rossfeld

Notes

1. ↑ Winter, Jay: Historiography 1918-Today, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2014-11-11. DOI: 10.15463/ie1418.10498; Hirschfeld, Gerhard / Krumeich, Gerd / Renz, Irina: Vorwort, in: Hirschfeld, Gerhard / Krumeich, Gerd / Renz, Irina (eds.): Enzyklopädie Erster Weltkrieg, Paderborn 2003, p. 9; Segesser, Daniel Marc: Wellen der Erinnerung und der Analyse. Gedanken zu Historiographie und Narrativen vom “Grossen Krieg" zwischen 1914 und 2014 in globaler Perspektive, in: Bachinger, Bernhard et al. (eds.): Gedenken und (k)ein Ende? Das Weltkriegs-Gedenken 1914/2014. Debatten, Zugänge, Ausblicke, Vienna 2017, pp. 23-26.

2. ↑ Kuhn, Konrad J. / Ziegler, Béatrice (eds.): Der vergessene Krieg. Spuren und Traditionen zur Schweiz im Ersten Weltkrieg, Baden 2014; Rossfeld, Roman / Straumann, Tobias (ed.): Der vergessene Wirtschaftskrieg. Schweizer Unternehmen im Ersten Weltkrieg, Zürich 2008; Kreis, Georg: Insel der unsicheren Geborgenheit. Die Schweiz in den Kriegsjahren 1914-1918, Zürich 2014, p. 12.

3. ↑ See Chickering, Roger: Total War. The Use and Abuse of a Concept, in: Boemeke, Manfred / Chickering, Roger / Förster, Stig (eds.): Anticipating Total War. The German and American Experiences 1871-1914, Washington 1999, p. 27.

4. ↑ Abbenhuis, Maartje: On the Edge of the Storm? Situating Switzerland’s Neutrality in the Context of the First World War, in: Olsansky Michael (ed.): Am Rande des Sturms. Das Schweizer Militär im Ersten Weltkrieg, Baden 2018, pp. 27-37.

5. ↑ Often books and articles give a brief insight into the state of research at the time of their publication (e.g. Kreis, Insel 2014, pp. 14-15), but few are devoted to the history of the historiography. Examples are Berni, Marcel: Switzerland and the Great War. 100 Years of Historiography, in: Jacob, Frank / Shaw, Jeffrey / Demy, Timothy (eds.): War and the Humanities. The Cultural Impact of the First World War, Paderborn 2019, pp. 85-104; Kuhn, Konrad J. / Ziegler, Béatrice: Dominantes Narrativ und drängende Forschungsfragen. Zur Geschichte der Schweiz im Ersten Weltkrieg, in: Traverse. Zeitschrift für Geschichte 18/3 (2011), pp. 123–141 or Segesser, Wellen 2017, pp. 23-47.

6. ↑ Ibid., pp. 23-24. ”Waves of analysis and remembrance” is a metaphor that is used in a manner similar to ”generations of historical writing”. See Winter, Historiography 2014.

7. ↑ Segesser, Wellen 2017, pp. 26-27; Winter, Historiography 2014.

8. ↑ The Swiss government did this in its so called Neutralitätsberichte that were officially published in the Schweizerisches Bundesblatt (BBl), available online at Archives fédérales suisses. Publications officielles numérisées, issued by Schweizerische Eidgenossenschaft, online: https://www.amtsdruckschriften.bar.admin.ch/start.do (retrieved: 27 February 2022). See BBl. No. 50 (1914), pp. 707-758, No. 8 (1916), pp. 119-141; No. 21 (1916), pp. 533-635; No. 37 (1916), pp. 519-568; No. 47 (1916), pp. 192-229; No. 11 (1917), pp. 298-356; No. 22 (1917), pp. 225-265; No. 38 (1918), pp. 55-144; No. 49 (1917), pp. 589-656; No. 22 (1918), pp. 65-201; No. 50 (1918), pp. 151-320; No. 22 (1919), pp. 111-276; No. 47 (1919), pp. 437-632; No. 23 (1920), pp. 257-342; No. 46 (1920), pp. 579-656; No. 20 (1921), pp. 90-131; No. 44 (1921), pp. 814-846; No. 17 (1922), pp. 675-700; No. 47 (1922), pp. 677-708 and No. 23 (1923), pp. 338-356; Wille, Ulrich: Bericht an die Bundesversammlung über den Aktivdienst 1914/18, Zurich 1919.

9. ↑ Examples are Michel, Janett: Überläufer am Umbrail, in: Bündnerisches Monatsblatt. Zeitschrift für bündnerische Geschichte, Landes- und Volkskunde 12 (1916), pp. 437-438; Faesi, Robert: Füsilier Wipf, Frauenfeld 1917; Schmid, Emil: Zur Umbrail-Hochwacht, St. Gallen 1917; Frehner, Otto / Bächtiger, August: IV/82 am Umbrail, 1918; Heer, Jacob: Das ist Deine Schweiz. Soldatenbriefe aus den Grenzbesetzungsdiensten des Bat. 85, 1914-1918, Glarus 1919. On the sociology of historical writing about the First World War in general see Winter, Historiography 2014.

10. ↑ Politisches Jahrbuch der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, Bern 1886-1917.

11. ↑ Kreis, Insel 2014, pp. 14-15.

12. ↑ Elsig, Alexandre: Das Standardwerk von Jacob Ruchti, in: Rossfeld, Roman / Buomberger, Thomas / Kury, Patrick (eds.): 14/18. Die Schweiz und der Grosse Krieg, Baden 2014, p. 94.

13. ↑ Ruchti, Jacob: Geschichte der Schweiz während des Weltkrieges 1914-1918, Bern 1928-1930.

14. ↑ Elsig, Standardwerk 2014, p. 94; Kreis, Insel 2014, p. 12.

15. ↑ Shotwell, James T.: Outline of a Plan, Washington 1924, p. 7.

16. ↑ Kreis, Insel 2014, p. 12.

17. ↑ Greven, Hendrik Barend (ed.): The Netherlands and the World War. Studies in the War History of a Neutral, 4 vols., New Haven 1923-1928.

18. ↑ Ruchti, Geschichte 1928, volume 1, pp. 49-266, 394-495 and 1930, volume 2, pp. 339-566.

19. ↑ Carpentier Alting, Johannes Hendrik / de Cock, W.: The Effect of the War upon the Colonies, New Haven 1928.

20. ↑ Geering, Traugott: Handel und Industrie der Schweiz unter dem Einfluss des Weltkriegs, Basel 1928; Wyler, Julius: Die schweizerische Bevölkerung unter dem Einflusse des Weltkrieges, Zurich 1922.

21. ↑ Geering, Handel 1928, p. 11.

22. ↑ Shotwell, Outline 1924, p. 10.

23. ↑ Bek, Friedrich: Die Handelsbeziehungen zwischen Italien und der Schweiz unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Kriegsjahre, Weinfelden 1921.

24. ↑ Frey, Gustav A.: Die Rohstoffversorgung der Schweiz während des Krieges besonders in der Textil- und Metallindustrie, Aarau 1921.

25. ↑ Käppeli, Josef / Riesen Max: Die Lebensmittelversorgung in der Schweiz unter dem Einfluss des Weltkrieges von 1914 bis 1922, in: Landwirtschaftliches Jahrbuch der Schweiz 40/1 (1926), pp. 1-134.

26. ↑ Obrecht, Max: Die kriegswirtschaftlichen Überwachungsgesellschaften S.S.S. und S.T.S. und insbesondere ihre Syndikate. Dargestellt nach den von diesen in den Jahren 1915–1918 entwickelten Grundsätzen, Bern 1920.

27. ↑ Pfenninger, Rudolf: Die Handelsbeziehungen zwischen der Schweiz und Deutschland während des Krieges 1914-1918, Zürich 1928.

28. ↑ Scheurmann, Eduard: Die Milchversorgung der Schweiz während des Krieges und der Nachkriegszeit. Darstellung und Kritik, Stuttgart 1923.

29. ↑ Sieveking, Heinrich: Schweizerische Kriegswirtschaft, Lausanne 1922.

30. ↑ Koller, Christian: Die schweizerische “Grenzbesetzung 1914/18“ als Erinnerungsort der “Geistigen Landesverteidigung“, in: Kuprian, Hermann J. W. / Überegger, Oswald (eds.): Der Erste Weltkrieg im Alpenraum. Erfahrung, Deutung, Erinnerung, Innsbruck 2006, pp. 441-462; Neumann, Peter: Im patriotischen Dienst. “Füsilier Wipf“ als Film der Geistigen Landesverteidigung, in: Kuhn, Konrad J. / Ziegler, Béatrice (eds.): Der vergessene Krieg. Spuren und Traditionen zur Schweiz im Ersten Weltkrieg, Baden 2014, pp. 233-246; Ziegler, Béatrice: Hierarchisierungen in der Grenzbesetzung. Zivilgesellschaften und Armee im Film “Gilberte de Courgenay“, in: Kuhn, Konrad J. / Ziegler, Béatrice (eds.): Der vergessene Krieg. Spuren und Traditionen zur Schweiz im Ersten Weltkrieg, Baden 2014, pp. 247-265.

31. ↑ Historisch-Biographisches Lexikon der Schweiz, issued by DigiBerin, online: https://www.digibern.ch/katalog/historisch-biographisches-lexikon-der-schweiz (retrieved: 17 February 2022).

32. ↑ Heinrich Türler / Victor Attinger / Marcel Godet (eds): Historisch-Biographisches Lexikon der Schweiz, volume 7, Neuchâtel 1934, pp. 471-480. Unfortunately Berni, Switzerland 2019, p. 91 does not treat this aspect, when rightly pointing to this article that is often overlooked when dealing with the historiography of Switzerland in the First World War. On Ruchti’s pro-German stance see Elsig, Standardwerk 2014, p. 94.

33. ↑ Zala, Sacha: Geschichte unter der Schere der politischen Zensur. Amtliche Aktensammlungen im internationalen Vergleich, Munich 2001, pp. 47-92. The Documents Diplomatiques Suisses were only published from 1979 onwards. Volume 6, 1981, deals with the period of the First World War. See DDS, vol. 6 (1914–1918), issued by Dodis, online: https://www.dodis.ch/DDS-6 (retrieved: 17 February 2022).

34. ↑ See Zala, Sacha: Gebändigte Geschichte. Amtliche Historiographie und Ihr Malaise mit der Geschichte der Neutralität, 1945-1961, Bern 1998.

35. ↑ Bonjour, Edgar: Geschichte der schweizerischen Neutralität. Vier Jahrhunderte eidgenössischer Aussenpolitik, volume 2, Basel 1970, pp. 97-250.

36. ↑ Kurz, Hans Rudolf: Dokumente der Grenzbesetzung 1914-1918, Frauenfeld 1970.

37. ↑ Helbling, Carl: General Ulrich Wille. Biographie, Zurich 1957; Kurz, Hans Rudolf: Oberstkorpskommandant Theophil Sprecher von Bernegg. Eine kritische Biographie, Wattwil 1961; Röthlisberger, Heinz Christian: Der politische Standort von Ulrich Wille, Stäfa 1975.

38. ↑ Richers, Julia: Erinnern und Vergessenwollen in der Gemeinde Zimmerwald, in: Degen, Bernard / Richers, Julia (eds.): Zimmerwald und Kiental. Weltgeschichte auf dem Dorfe, Zurich 2015, pp. 189-191.

39. ↑ Segesser, Daniel Marc / Pfister, Christian / Krämer, Daniel: Einleitung, in: Krämer, Daniel / Pfister, Christian / Segesser, Daniel Marc (eds.): “Woche für Woche neue Preisaufschläge“. Nahrungsmittel-, Energie- und Ressourcenkonflikte in der Schweiz des Ersten Weltkrieges, Basel 2016, p. 16; Winter, Historiography 2014.

40. ↑ Gautschi, Willi: Der Landesstreik 1918. Zurich 1968. On the context of Gautschi and his work see Yersin, Séveric: Willi Gautschi (1920–1984) et la Grève générale. Une oeuvre historiographique dans son contexte, in: Traverse. Zeitschrift für Geschichte 25/2 (2018), pp. 63-77.

41. ↑ Gautschi, Willi: Dokumente zum Landesstreik 1918, Zurich 1971; Gautschi, Willi: Lenin als Emigrant in der Schweiz, Zurich 1975.

42. ↑ Gautschi, Landesstreik 1971, pp. 380-384. See Berni, Switzerland 2019, p. 92.

43. ↑ Cerutti, Mauro: Un tournant dans l’histoire du mouvement ouvrier genevois. La grève générale de 1918. Les mouvements ”de gauche” à Genève de 1914 à 1918, Geneva 1974; Mattmüller, Markus: Die Zürcher Arbeiterbewegung während des Ersten Weltkrieges, in: Zürcher Taschenbuch 90 (1970), pp. 65-87; Schelbert, Joe: Der Landesstreik vom November 1918 in der Region Luzern, Lucerne 1985; Schmid, Hanspeter: Krieg der Bürger. Das Bürgertum im Kampf gegen den Generalstreik 1919 in Basel, Zurich 1980; Schmid-Ammann, Paul: Die Wahrheit über den Generalstreik von 1918. Seine Ursachen, sein Verlauf, seine Folgen, Zürich 1968; Vuilleumier, Marc: La Grève Générale de 1918 en Suisse, Geneva 1977.

44. ↑ Mattmüller, Markus: Leonhard Ragaz und der religiöse Sozialismus. eine Biographie, Zollikon 1957-1968; Böschenstein, Hermann: Bundesrat Schulthess. Krieg und Krisen, Bern 1966; Frick, Hans Rudolf: Zwischen Klassenkampf und Demokratie. Der erste sozialdemokratische Bundesrat Ernst Nobs als Redaktor am Zürcher “Volksrecht“ 1915-1935, Clausthal-Zellerfeld 1975; Voigt, Christian: Robert Grimm. Kämpfer, Arbeiterführer, Parlamentarier, Bern 1980.

45. ↑ Ochsenbein, Heinz: Die verlorene Wirtschaftsfreiheit, 1914-1918. Methoden ausländischer Wirtschaftskontrollen über die Schweiz, Bern 1971; Luciri, Pierre: Le prix de la neutralité. La diplomatie secrète de la Suisse en 1914-1915, Geneva 1976.

46. ↑ Jost, Hans Ulrich: Linksradikalismus in der deutschen Schweiz 1914-1918, Bern 1973.

47. ↑ Im Hof, Ulrich: Geschichte der Schweiz, Stuttgart 1974, pp. 131-133; von Greyerz, Hans: Der Bundesstaat seit 1848, in: Helbling, Hanno et al. (eds.): Handbuch der Schweizer Geschichte, volume 2, Zurich 1977, pp. 1019-1267: Jost, Hans-Ulrich: Bedrohung und Enge (1914–1945), in: Im Hof, Ulrich et al. (eds.): Geschichte der Schweiz und der Schweizer, volume 3, Basel 1983, pp. 101-189. Also see Berni, Switzerland 2019, pp. 94-96.

48. ↑ Winter, Jay / Prost, Antoine: The Great War in History: Debates and Controversies, 1914 to the Present, Cambridge 2005, pp. 25-31; Segesser, Wellen 2017, p. 31.

49. ↑ Meienberg, Niklaus: Die Welt als Wille und Wahn. Elemente zur Naturgeschichte eines Clans, Zurich 1987.

50. ↑ Fuhrer, Hans Rudolf / Strässle, Paul Meinrad (eds.): General Ulrich Wille. Vorbild den einen – Feindbild den anderen, Zurich 2003; See Jaun, Rudolf: General Wille unter Shitstorm. Niklaus Meienbergs “Wille und Wahn“ in der Medien- und Fachöffentlichkeit der 1980er Jahre, in: Kuhn, Konrad J. / Ziegler, Béatrice (eds.): Der vergessene Krieg. Spuren und Traditionen zur Schweiz im Ersten Weltkrieg, Baden 2014, pp. 271-290.

51. ↑ Zeller, René: Vom Generalstabschef zum Frontenführer, Zurich 1999; Sprecher, Daniel: Generalstabschef Theophil Sprecher von Bernegg. Seine militärisch-politische Leistung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Neutralität, Zurich 2000. Although he bears the same surname, Daniel Sprecher is from a different line of the Sprecher family. See pp. 573-574.

52. ↑ Mittler, Max: Der Weg zum Ersten Weltkrieg. Wie neutral war die Schweiz?, Zurich 2003.

53. ↑ Fuhrer, Hans Rudolf: Die Schweizerische Armee im Ersten Weltkrieg. Bedrohung, Landesverteidigung und Landesbefestigung, Zurich 2001; Rapold, Hans: Zeit der Bewährung? Die Epoche um den Ersten Weltkrieg 1907-1924, Basel 1988; Jaun, Rudolf: Das Schweizerische Generalstabskorps 1875-1945. Eine kollektiv-biographische Studie, Basel 1991; Jaun, Rudolf: Preussen vor Augen. Das schweizerische Offizierskorps im militärischen und gesellschaftlichen Wandel des Fin de Siècle, Zurich 1999.

54. ↑ Billeter, Nicole: “Worte machen gegen die Schändung des Geistes!“ Kriegsansichten von Literaten in der Schweizer Emigration 1914/1918, Bern 2005.

55. ↑ Arlettaz, Gérald / Arlettaz, Silvia: Les effets de la Première Guerre mondiale sur l'intégration des étrangers en Suisse, in: Relations internationales 54 (1988), pp. 161-179; Bürgisser, Thomas: ”Unerwünschte Gäste”. Russische Soldaten in der Schweiz 1915-1920, Zurich 2010; Durrer, Bettina: Auf der Flucht vor dem Kriegsdienst. Deserteure und Refraktäre in der Schweiz während des Ersten Weltkrieges, in: Goehrke, Carsten / Zimmermann, Werner G. (eds.): ”Zuflucht Schweiz”. Der Umgang mit Asylproblemen im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert, Zurich 1994, pp. 197-216; Gast, Uriel: Von der Kontrolle zur Abwehr. Die Eidgenössische Fremdenpolizei im Spannungsfeld von Politik und Wirtschaft 1915-1933, Zurich 1997; Gysin, Roland: ”Sanitätsfestung Schweiz”. Über das Erheben der Stimme der Menschlichkeit. Internierte fremde Militärpersonen 1916-1919, Zurich 1993; Gysin, Roland: Die Internierung fremder Militärpersonen im 1. Weltkrieg. Vom Nutzen der Humanität und den Mühen in der Asylpolitik, in: Guex, Sebastien et al. (eds.): Die Schweiz 1798-1998. Staat - Gesellschaft - Politik. Krisen und Stabilisierung, volume 2, Zurich 1998, pp. 33-46.

56. ↑ Walter, François: La création de la Suisse moderne, Neuchâtel 2010, pp. 119-136.

57. ↑ Koller, “Grenzbesetzung 1914/18“ 2006, p. 460.

58. ↑ Rossfeld / Straumann, Wirtschaftskrieg 2014.

59. ↑ Kuhn / Ziegler, Dominantes Narrativ 2011, pp. 123-141.

60. ↑ The two projects were Under the Fire of Propaganda. Switzerland during the Great War (2010-2013) and Switzerland in the First World War. Transnational Perspectives on a Small State in Total War (2012–2017). See Sous le feu des propagandes. La Suisse durant la Grande Guerre, issued by P3, online: http://p3.snf.ch/project-130929 (retrieved: 17 February 2022); Die Schweiz im Ersten Weltkrieg. Transnationale Perspektiven auf einen Kleinstaat im totalen Krieg, issued by P3, online: http://p3.snf.ch/project-141906 (retrieved: 17 February 2022) and Switzerland in the First World War. Transnational Perspectives on a Small State in Total War, issued by P3, online: http://p3.snf.ch/project-160716 (retrieved: 17 February 2022).

61. ↑ The panel organized by Roman Rossfeld was called “Global War – Total War? A transnational and comparative perspective on Switzerland in the First World War”. See «Globaler Krieg – totaler Krieg? Transnationale und vergleichende Perspektiven auf die Schweiz im Ersten Weltkrieg», issued by Schweizerische Geschichtstage, online: https://2013.geschichtstage.ch/panel/111/globaler-krieg--totaler-krieg-transnationale-und-vergleichende-perspektiven-auf-die-schweiz-im-ersten-weltkrieg (retrieved: 17 February 2022).

62. ↑ Bondallaz, Patrick: De la charité populaire à la diplomatie humanitaire. L’exemple des secours suisses en faveur de la Serbie, in: Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Geschichte 63/3 (2013), pp. 405-427; Elsig, Alexandre: Un ”Laboratoire de Choix”? Le Rôle de la Suisse dans le dispositif européen de la propagande allemande, in: Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Geschichte 63/3 (2013), pp. 382-404; Kuhn, Konrad J. / Ziegler, Béatrice: Tradierungen zur Schweiz im Ersten Weltkrieg. Geschichtskulturelle Prägungen der Geschichtswissenschaft und ihre Folgen, in: Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Geschichte 63/3 (2013), pp. 505-526; Rossfeld, Roman: 1914–1918. Neue Zugänge zur Geschichte der Schweiz im Ersten Weltkrieg, in: Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Geschichte 63/3 (2013), pp. 337-342; Segesser, Daniel Marc: Nicht kriegführend, aber doch Teil eines globalen Krieges. Perspektiven auf transnationale Verflechtungen der Schweiz im Ersten Weltkrieg, in: Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Geschichte 63/3 (2013), pp. 364-381.

63. ↑ Winter, Historiography 2014.

64. ↑ Kreis, Insel 2014.

65. ↑ Rossfeld, Roman / Buomberger, Thomas / Kury, Patrick (eds.): 14/18. Die Schweiz und der Grosse Krieg, Baden 2014. For the bibliography see pp. 388-399.

66. ↑ Tanner, Jakob: Die Schweiz im Grossen Krieg. Plädoyer für eine transnationale Geschichte, in: Rossfeld, Roman / Buomberger, Thomas / Kury, Patrick (eds.): 14/18. Die Schweiz und der Grosse Krieg, Baden 2014, pp. 8-17.

67. ↑ Regions/Switzerland, issued by 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia for the First World War, online: https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/regions/Switzerland (retrieved: 17 February 2022).

68. ↑ Elsig, Alexandre: Les shrapnels du mensonge. La Suisse face à la propagande allemande de la Grande Guerre, Lausanne 2017; Elsig, Alexandre: Zwischen Zwietracht und Eintracht. Propaganda als Bewährungsprobe für die nationale Kohäsion, in: Rossfeld, Roman / Buomberger, Thomas / Kury, Patrick (eds.): 14/18. Die Schweiz und der Grosse Krieg, Baden 2014, pp. 72-101.

69. ↑ Charrier, Landry: L'Emigration allemande en Suisse pendant la Grande Guerre, Geneva 2015; Huber, Anja: Fremdsein im Krieg. Die Schweiz als Ausgangs- und Zielort von Migration, 1914-1918, Zurich 2018.

70. ↑ Steiner, Sebastian: Unter Kriegsrecht. Die schweizerische Militärjustiz 1914-1921, Zurich 2018; Steiner, Sebastian: ”Geist der Rache” oder “Geist der Verständigung”? Die Militärjustiz und der Landesstreik, in: Rossfeld, Roman / Koller, Christian / Studer Brigitte (eds.): Der Landesstreik. Die Schweiz im November 1918, Baden 2018, pp. 152-176.

71. ↑ Schneider, Oliver: Die Schweiz im Ausnahmezustand. Expansion und Grenzen von Staatlichkeit im Vollmachtenregime des Ersten Weltkriegs, 1914-1919, Zurich 2019; Schneider, Oliver: Diktatur der Bürokratie? Das Vollmachtenregime des Bundesrats im Ersten Weltkrieg, in: Rossfeld, Roman / Buomberger, Thomas / Kury, Patrick (eds.): 14/18. Die Schweiz und der Grosse Krieg. Baden 2014, pp. 48-71; Schneider, Oliver: Partizipation statt Revolution. Der Landesstreik, die Arbeiterbewegung und das Vollmachtenregime des Bundesrats, in: Rossfeld, Roman / Koller, Christian / Studer Brigitte (eds.): Der Landesstreik. Die Schweiz im November 1918, Baden 2018, pp. 110-126.

72. ↑ Cotter, Cédric: (S’)Aider pour survivre. Action humanitaire et neutralité suisse pendant la Première Guerre mondiale, Chêne-Bourg 2017; Hermann, Irene / Cotter, Cédric: Hilfe zum Selbstschutz. Die Schweiz und ihre humanitären Werke, in: Rossfeld, Roman / Buomberger, Thomas / Kury, Patrick (eds.): 14/18. Die Schweiz und der Grosse Krieg. Baden 2014, pp. 240-265.

73. ↑ Braunschweig, Sabine: “Ohne Unterschied jedem verwundeten Krieger helfen”. Schweizer Krankenpflegerinnen in ausländischen Militärspitälern im Ersten Weltkrieg, in: Braunschweig, Sabine (ed.): “Als habe es die Frauen nicht gegeben“. Beiträge zur Frauen- und Geschlechtergeschichte, Zurich 2014, pp. 145-160; Joris, Elisabeth: Umdeutung und Ausblendung. Entpolitisierung des Engagements von Frauen im Ersten Weltkrieg in Erinnerungsschriften, in: Kuhn, Konrad / Ziegler, Béatrice (eds.): Der vergessene Krieg. Spuren und Traditionen zur Schweiz im Ersten Weltkrieg, Baden 2014, pp. 133-151.

74. ↑ Zala, Sacha / Perrenoud, Marc (eds.): La Suisse et la construction du multilatéralisme (Quaderni di Dodis Vol. 14), Bern 2019. See Die Schweiz und die Konstruktion des Multilateralismus, Bd. 2 | QdD 14, issued by Dodis, online: https://www.dodis.ch/de/q14 (retrieved: 17 February 2022).

75. ↑ Sonderegger, Christian / Tscherrig, Andreas: Die Grippepandemie 1918-1919 in der Schweiz, in: Krämer, Daniel / Pfister, Christian / Segesser, Daniel Marc (eds.): “Woche für Woche neue Preisaufschläge”. Nahrungsmittel-, Energie- und Ressourcenkonflikte in der Schweiz des Ersten Weltkrieges, Basel 2016, pp. 259-283 (with many further references); Tscherrig, Andreas: Krankenhausbesuche verboten! Die Spanische Grippe 1918/19 und die kantonalen Sanitätsbehörden in Basel-Landschaft und Basel-Stadt, Liestal 2016; Kury, Patrick: Das Virus der Unsicherheit. Die Jahrhundertgrippe von 1918/19 und der Landesstreik, in: Rossfeld, Roman / Koller, Christian / Studer Brigitte (eds.): Der Landesstreik. Die Schweiz im November 1918, Baden 2018, pp. 390-411. In contrast to more recent studies the early one of Rusterholz, Armin: “Das Sterben will nicht enden!” Die “Spanische Grippe-Epidemie” 1918/19 in der Schweizer Armee mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Glarner Militäropfer, in: Jahrbuch des Historischen Vereins des Kantons Glarus 90 (2010), pp. 9-201 still had a focus on the military victims of the pandemic, something which was already typical of immediate post-war memory.

76. ↑ Jaun, Rudolf et al. (eds.): An der Front und hinter der Front. Der Erste Weltkrieg und seine Gefechtsfelder, Baden 2015; Jorio, Marco: “Urwüchsig Schweizerholz”. Die Nidwaldner Soldaten im Ersten Weltkrieg, in: Beiträge zur Geschichte Nidwaldens 48 (2018), pp. 30-51; Podzorski, Mario: Kriegsalltag und Kriegserfahrungen von Schweizer Soldaten am Umbrail und im Münstertal im Ersten Weltkrieg, in: Jahrbuch Historische Gesellschaft Graubünden 146 (2016), pp. 57-135; Olsansky, Michael M. (ed.): Am Rande des Sturms. Das Schweizer Militär im Ersten Weltkrieg, Baden 2018; Vuilleumier, Christophe: La Suisse face à l’espionnage, Geneva 2015; Vuilleumier, Christophe (ed.): Nachrichtendienste in neutralen Ländern, Baden 2021. A bit more classical in outlook is Stoeckli, Fritz: L’Affaire des Colonels 1915-1916. Révélations des Archives, Geneva 2020.

77. ↑ Besorger, Walter / Morosoli, Renato (eds): Der Kanton Zug während des Ersten Weltkrieges, in: Tugium 30 (2014), pp. 105-184, 31 (2015), pp. 122-169, 32 (2016), pp. 134-211, 33 (2017), pp. 154-242, 34 (2018), pp. 134-211 and 35 (2019), pp. 194-247; Birchmeier, Christian / Hofer, Roland E.: Schaffhausen und der Erste Weltkrieg. Aspekte zur Geschichte einer schwierigen Zeit, in: Schaffhauser Beiträge zur Geschichte 87 (2013), pp. 9-63; Fink, Urban (ed.): Der Kanton Solothurn vor hundert Jahren. Quellen, Bilder und Erinnerungen zur Zeit des Ersten Weltkrieges, Baden 2014; Floris, Joël / Kuster, Marius / Woitek, Ulrich: Armutsgrenzen in der Stadt Zürich während des Ersten Weltkriegs, in: Traverse: Zeitschrift für Geschichte 24/3 (2017), pp. 97-112; Hebeisen, Erika / Niederhäuser, Peter / Schmid, Regula: Kriegs- und Krisenzeit. Zürich während des Ersten Weltkriegs, Zurich 2014; Historischer Verein Nidwalden (ed.): Nidwalden im Ersten Weltkrieg, in: Beiträge zur Geschichte Nidwaldens 48 (2018), pp. 5-219; Horat, Erwin: “Vom Krieg verschont und doch von Sorgen geplagt”. Soziale und wirtschaftliche Schwierigkeiten am Beispiel des Kantons Schwyz in der Zeit des Ersten Weltkriegs, in: Der Geschichtsfreund 169 (2016), pp. 53-74; Labhardt, Robert: Krieg und Krise. Basel 1914-1918, Basel 2014; Omachen, Peter: Das Ende der “Fremdenindustrie”. Der Erste Weltkrieg aus Sicht des Luzerner Tourismus, in: Der Geschichtsfreund 169 (2016), pp. 101-114; Schmid-Weiss, Gertrud: Schweizer Kriegsnothilfe im Ersten Weltkrieg. Eine Mikrogeschichte des Überlebens mit besonderer Sicht auf Stadt und Kanton Zürich, Vienna 2019; Weck, Hervé de / Roten, Bernard: Jura et Jura bernois pendant la Première Guerre mondiale, Porrentruy 2017.

78. ↑ Degen, Bernard / Schäppi, Hans / Zimmermann, Adrian (eds.): Robert Grimm. Marxist, Kämpfer, Politiker, Zurich 2012; Fehr, Sandro: Energie für den Krieg. Schweizer Unternehmen als Zulieferer und Produzenten in der deutschen Stickstoffwirtschaft während des Ersten Weltkriegs, in: Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte 56/2 (2015), pp. 479-513; Huber, Anja: “Schwierige Zeiten und Umstände”. Alltag in Nidwalden, in: Beiträge zur Geschichte Nidwaldens 48 (2018), pp. 10-29; Meier, Maria: Von Notstand und Wohlstand. Die Basler Lebensmittelversorgung im Krieg, 1914-1918, Zurich 2020; Weber, Florian: Die amerikanische Verheissung. Schweizer Aussenpolitik im Wirtschaftskrieg 1917/18, Zurich 2016.

79. ↑ Krämer / Pfister / Segesser (eds.), “Woche für Woche” 2016. On the new field of the environmental history of the war see Tucker, Richard et al. (eds.): Environmental Histories of the First World War, Cambridge 2018.

80. ↑ Brugnara, Yuri et al.: December 1916. Deadly Wartime Weather, Bern 2016; Brugnara, Yuri: Reanalysis Sheds Light on 1916 Avalanche Disaster, in: ECMWF Newsletter 151 (2017), pp. 28-34; Segesser, Daniel Marc: “Fighting Where Nature Joins Forces with the Enemy”. Nature, Living Conditions and their Representation in the War in the Alps 1915-1918, in: Hungarian Historical Review 7/3 (2018), pp. 568-593.

81. ↑ Degen, Bernard / Richers, Julia (eds.): Zimmerwald und Kiental. Weltgeschichte auf dem Dorfe, Zurich 2015. This study was complemented in 2017 with two edited volumes published in the context of two co-organised exhibitions in Zurich and Berlin on the revolutions in Russia in 1917 and on the relationship between Russia and Switzerland in this context. Deutsches Historisches Museum / Schweizerisches Nationalmuseum (eds.): 1917 Revolution. Russland und die Folgen, Dresden 2017; Schweizerisches Nationalmuseum (ed.): 1917 Revolution. Russland und die Schweiz, Dresden 2017.

82. ↑ Rossfeld, Roman: “Abgedrehte Kupferwaren”. Kriegsmaterialexporte der schweizerischen Uhren-, Metall- und Maschinenindustrie im Ersten Weltkrieg, in: Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte 56/2 (2015), pp. 515-552.

83. ↑ Segesser, Nicht kriegführend 2013, pp. 364-381; Segesser, Daniel Marc: Zwischen Weiji und dem Tod von Marie Ankenhafen. Globale Herausforderungen und Krisen in der Ressourcenmobilisierung, in: Krämer, Daniel / Pfister, Christian / Segesser, Daniel Marc (eds.): “Woche für Woche neue Preisaufschläge”. Nahrungsmittel-, Energie- und Ressourcenkonflikte in der Schweiz des Ersten Weltkrieges, Basel 2016, pp. 29-55; Segesser, Daniel Marc: Ein “Solothurner” in Turkestan. Romedius Wacker zwischen militärischer Migration und einem grenzüberschreitenden Blick auf die Geschichte der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts, in: Jahrbuch für Solothurnische Geschichte 93 (2020), pp. 73-100.

84. ↑ Segesser, Daniel Marc / Weber, Wolfgang / Zala, Sacha (eds.): Sehr geteilte Meinungen. Dokumente zur Vorarlberger Frage 1918-1922, Bern 2021. See Sehr geteilte Meinungen | QdD 17, issued by Dodis, online: https://www.dodis.ch/de/q17 (retrieved: 17 February 2022).

85. ↑ Krämer / Pfister / Segesser (eds.), “Woche für Woche” 2016.

86. ↑ Krieg und Krise. Kultur-, geschlechter- und emotionshistorische Perspektiven auf den schweizerischen Landesstreik vom November 1918 (2016-2021), available online at Krieg und Krise. Kultur-, geschlechter- und emotionshistorische Perspektiven auf den schweizerischen Landesstreik vom November 1918, issued by P3, online: http://p3.snf.ch/project-165793 (retrieved: 17 February 2022).

87. ↑ Rossfeld, Roman / Koller, Christian / Studer, Brigitte (eds.): Der Landesstreik. Die Schweiz im November 1918, Baden 2018. For the bibliography see pp. 434-450.

88. ↑ La Grève générale de 1918. Crises, conflicts, controversies – Der Landesstreik 1918. Krisen, Konflikte, Kontroversen, in Traverse: Zeitschrift für Geschichte 25/2 (2018), pp. 5-323.

89. ↑ Rennwald, Jean-Claude / Zimmermann, Adrian (eds.): La Grève générale de 1918 en Suisse. Histoire et répercussions. Neuchâtel 2018; Steiner, Julien (ed.): La Grève générale de 1918 à Bienne et dans le Jura bernois, Biel/Bienne 2018.

90. ↑ Jaun, Rudolf / Straumann, Tobias: Durch fortschreitende Verelendung zum Generalstreik? Widersprüche eines populären Narrativs, in: Der Geschichtsfreund 169 (2016), pp. 19-51; Koller, Christian: Irrtum, Erkenntnis und Interessen. Die Erinnerung an den schweizerischen Landesstreik zwischen Geschichtswissenschaft und Memorialpolitik, in: Connexus 2 (2019), pp. 175-195.

91. ↑ Caillat, Michel / Fayet, Jean-François: Le mythe de l’ingérence bolchevique dans la Grève générale de novembre 1918. Histoire d’une construction franco-suisse, in: Traverse: Zeitschrift für Geschichte 25/2 (2018), pp. 213-230; Koller, Christian: Der Landesstreik im Kontext der Schweizer Streikgeschichte, in: Traverse: Zeitschrift für Geschichte 25/2 (2018), pp. 91-109; Rossfeld, Roman: Wege und Desiderate der Forschung zur Geschichte des schweizerischen Landesstreiks vom November 1918, in: Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 57 (2017), pp. 417-426.

Citation

Segesser, Daniel Marc: Historiography 1918-Today (Switzerland) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2022-02-19. DOI: 10.15463/ie1418.11601.

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This text is licensed under Creative Commmons Licence (Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Germany-CC BY-NC-ND 3.0)

Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Introduction

A First Wave or a First Generation: Writing About the War from Memory and on the Basis of Publicly Available Sources, 1914 to Early 1930s

A Second Wave or a Second Generation: From a Focus on Neutrality, Anti-communism and the Military to an Analysis of Social and Economic Conflict in the 1960s and 1970s

Stamped out Paths and Innovative Moments: A Very Diverging Third Wave or Third Generation in the 1990s and Early 2000s

Thanks to the Centenary: Switzerland’s Historiography Goes Transnational in a Fourth Wave or a Fourth Generation, 2010 to the Present

Conclusion

Selected Bibliography

Citation

Content